Pharmakon
Bibliography
Bibliography
Every source in the archive, deduplicated
The archive's complete evidentiary base: 1055 unique sources across 11 research threads, from colonial chronicles and foundational ethnography to this year's pharmacology. Duplicates across monographs are merged; each source lists every page that cites it.
Harvard style (Cite Them Right) · DOI and stable-record links · each entry links back to every page citing it
Archaeology & history
01 · 130 sources
Aguirre Beltrán, G. (1963) Medicina y magia: el proceso de aculturación en la estructura colonial. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional Indigenista. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa · Lophophora williamsii
Ahmad, K. and Aziz, Z. (2012) ‘Mitragyna speciosa use in the northern states of Malaysia: a cross-sectional study’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 141(1), pp. 446–450. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.03.009. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Assanangkornchai, S., Muekthong, A., Sam-Angsri, N. and Pattanasattayawong, U. (2007) ‘The use of mitragynine speciosa (“krathom”), an addictive plant, in Thailand’, Substance Use & Misuse, 42(14), pp. 2145–2157. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/10826080701205869. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Aubry-Lecomte, C.E. (1864) ‘Note sur quelques poisons de la côte occidentale d’Afrique’, Revue Maritime et Coloniale, 12, pp. 464–468. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Australian Government (2026) Therapeutic Goods (Poisons Standard—June 2026) Instrument 2026, F2026L00633. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Barabas, A.M. and Bartolomé, M.A. (1973) Hydraulic Development and Ethnocide: The Mazatec and Chinantec People of Oaxaca, Mexico. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Barnett, L.D. (2025) Peyote Politics: The Making of the Native American Church. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Biondich, A.S. and Joslin, J.D. (2016) ‘Coca: the history and medical significance of an ancient Andean tradition’, Emergency Medicine International, 2016, 4048764. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/4048764. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Bonhomme, J. (2023) ‘From Bwiti to ibogaine and back: a transnational history of Tabernanthe iboga’, in Langlitz, N. et al. (eds.) Expanding Mindscapes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 189–214. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/14417.003.0014. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Bowdich, T.E. (1819) Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee. London: John Murray, p. 422. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Brabec de Mori, B. (2011) ‘Tracing hallucinations: contributing to a critical ethnohistory of ayahuasca usage in the Peruvian Amazon’, in Labate, B.C. and Jungaberle, H. (eds.) The Internationalization of Ayahuasca. Zürich: Lit Verlag, pp. 23–47. cited in
Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex
Burger, R.L. (2011) ‘What kind of hallucinogenic snuff was used at Chavín de Huántar? An iconographic identification’, Ñawpa Pacha, 31(2), pp. 123–140. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1179/naw.2011.31.2.123. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Caporael, L.R. (1976) ‘Ergotism: the Satan loosed in Salem?’, Science, 192(4234), pp. 21–26. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.769159. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Carhart-Harris, R.L. et al. (2016) ‘Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression’, The Lancet Psychiatry, 3(7), pp. 619–627. cited in
Psilocybe cubensis
Carmody, S.B., Hurst, W.J., Zimmermann, M.I. and Gang, D.R. (2018) ‘Evidence of tobacco from a Late Archaic smoking tube recovered from the Flint River site in southeastern North America’, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 20, pp. 904–910. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.05.013. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Carod-Artal, F.J. and Vázquez-Cabrera, C.B. (2006) ‘Mescalina y ritual del cactus de San Pedro: evidencias arqueológicas y etnográficas en el norte de Perú’, Revista de Neurología, 42(8), pp. 489–498. Available at: https://doi.org/10.33588/rn.4208.2006040. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Central Narcotics Bureau (2026) 'Plants that contain controlled drugs'. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Charoenratana, S., Anukul, C. and Aramrattana, A. (2021) ‘Attitudes towards kratom use, decriminalization and the development of a community-based kratom control mechanism in Southern Thailand’, International Journal of Drug Policy, 95, 103197. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103197. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Chouvy, P.-A. (2009) Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy. London: I.B. Tauris. cited in
Papaver somniferum
Cicero (1928) De legibus, Book 2. Translated by C.W. Keyes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Available at: LacusCurtius (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Clinton, K. (2007) ‘The Mysteries of Demeter and Kore’, in Ogden, D. (ed.) A Companion to Greek Religion. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 342–356. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470996911.ch23. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Cobo, B. (1964 [1653]) Historia del Nuevo Mundo. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Españoles. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Cosmopoulos, M.B. (2014) ‘Cult, continuity, and social memory: Mycenaean Eleusis and the transition to the Early Iron Age’, American Journal of Archaeology, 118(3), pp. 401–427. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3764/aja.118.3.0401. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Cosmopoulos, M.B. (2015) Bronze Age Eleusis and the Origins of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511820700. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
de la Serna, J. (1953 [1656]) ‘Manual de ministros de indios para el conocimiento de sus idolatrías y extirpación de ellas’, in Tratado de las idolatrías, supersticiones, dioses, ritos, hechicerías y otras costumbres gentílicas de las razas aborígenes de México, vol. 1. Mexico City: Ediciones Fuente Cultural. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Dillehay, T.D., Rossen, J., Ugent, D., Karathanasis, A., Vásquez, V. and Netherly, P.J. (2010) ‘Early Holocene coca chewing in northern Peru’, Antiquity, 84(326), pp. 939–953. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00067004. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Duke, D., Wohlgemuth, E., Adams, K.R., Armstrong-Ingram, A., Rice, S.K. and Young, D.C. (2022) ‘Earliest evidence for human use of tobacco in the Pleistocene Americas’, Nature Human Behaviour, 6, pp. 183–192. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01202-9. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Dyck, E. (2005) ‘Flashback: psychiatric experimentation with LSD in historical perspective’, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50(7), pp. 381–388. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370505000703. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Echeverría, J. and Niemeyer, H.M. (2013) ‘Nicotine in the hair of mummies from San Pedro de Atacama (Northern Chile)’, Journal of Archaeological Science, 40(10), pp. 3561–3568. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.04.030. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
El-Seedi, H.R., De Smet, P.A.G.M., Beck, O. and Possnert, G. (2005) ‘Prehistoric peyote use: alkaloid analysis and radiocarbon dating of archaeological specimens of Lophophora from Texas’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 101(1–3), pp. 238–242. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.04.022. cited in
Lophophora williamsii · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Elferink, J.G.R. (1983) ‘The narcotic and hallucinogenic use of tobacco in pre-Columbian Central America’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 7(1), pp. 111–122. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(83)90084-3. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Fadiman, J. (2003) ‘Psychedelic research revisited’, Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 35(2), pp. 111–125. Available at: Association for Transpersonal Psychology. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Faudree, P. (2015) ‘Tales from the land of magic plants: textual ideologies and fetishes of indigeneity in Mexico’s Sierra Mazateca’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 57(3), pp. 838–869. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417515000304. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Faudree, P. (2020) ‘“Making medicine” with Salvia divinorum: competing approaches and their implications’, Medical Anthropology, 39(7), pp. 582–596. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/01459740.2020.1814772. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
FDA (2024a) Scientific Memorandum: Amanita muscaria. Silver Spring, MD: US Food and Drug Administration, 9 September. cited in
Amanita muscaria
FDA (2024b) 'FDA alerts industry and consumers about the use of Amanita muscaria or its constituents in food', 18 December. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Foley, H.P. (ed.) (1994) The Homeric Hymn to Demeter: Translation, Commentary, and Interpretive Essays. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400849086. cited in
Claviceps purpurea · Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Furst, P.T. (1974) ‘Morning glory and Mother Goddess at Tepantitla, Teotihuacán: iconography and analogy in pre-Columbian art’, in Hammond, N. (ed.) Mesoamerican Archaeology: New Approaches. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 187–215. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Gagliano, J.A. (1994) Coca Prohibition in Peru: The Historical Debates. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
García de Teresa, M. (2022) ‘Selling the priceless mushroom: a history of psilocybin mushroom trade in the Sierra Mazateca (Oaxaca)’, Journal of Illicit Economies and Development, 4(2), pp. 177–190. Available at: https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.101. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Glass-Coffin, B. (2010) ‘Shamanism and San Pedro through time: some notes on the archaeology, history, and continued use of an entheogen in northern Peru’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 21(1), pp. 58–82. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-3537.2010.01021.x. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Gootenberg, P. (2008) Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global Drug. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5149/9780807887797_gootenberg. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Grof, S. (1980) LSD Psychotherapy. Pomona, CA: Hunter House. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Grzybowski, A., Żaba, R., Żaba, C. and Żaba, Z. (2021) ‘Ergotism and Saint Anthony’s fire’, Clinics in Dermatology, 39(6), pp. 1088–1094. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2021.07.009. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Guaman Poma de Ayala, F. (1615/1616) El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Library, GKS 2232 4°. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Haarmann, T., Rolke, Y., Giesbert, S. and Tudzynski, P. (2009) ‘Ergot: from witchcraft to biotechnology’, Molecular Plant Pathology, 10(4), pp. 563–577. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1364-3703.2009.00548.x. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Henderson, J.S. et al. (2007) ‘Chemical and archaeological evidence for the earliest cacao beverages’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(48), pp. 18937–18940. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Hernández, F. (1651) Rerum medicarum Novae Hispaniae thesaurus, seu plantarum, animalium, mineralium Mexicanorum historia. Rome: Vitalis Mascardi. [Research undertaken in New Spain, 1570–1577.] cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Highpine, G. (2012) ‘Unraveling the mystery of the origin of ayahuasca’, Ayahuasca.com. Available at: ayahuasca.com (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Hofmann, A. (1980) LSD: My Problem Child—Reflections on Sacred Drugs, Mysticism, and Science. Translated by J. Ott. New York: McGraw-Hill. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Home Office (2025) 'List of most commonly encountered drugs currently controlled under the misuse of drugs legislation'. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Indriati, E. and Buikstra, J.E. (2001) ‘Coca chewing in prehistoric coastal Peru: dental evidence’, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 114(3), pp. 242–257. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/1096-8644(200103)114:3<242::AID-AJPA1023>3.0.CO;2-J. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Jay, M. (2019) Mescaline: A Global History of the First Psychedelic. New Haven: Yale University Press. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Johnson, J.B. (1939) ‘The elements of Mazatec witchcraft’, Etnologiska Studier, 9, pp. 119–149. Available at: digitalcommons.usf.edu. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Juan-Tresserras, J. (2002a) ‘Estudis dels residus orgànics per a la identificació de possibles ritus i ofrenes’, in Pons i Brun, E. (ed.) Mas Castellar de Pontós (Alt Empordà): un complex arqueològic d’època ibèrica (Excavacions 1990–1998). Girona: Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, pp. 548–556. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Kaplan, S.L. (2008) Le Pain maudit: Retour sur la France des années oubliées, 1945–1958. Paris: Fayard. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Lanaud, C. et al. (2024) ‘A revisited history of cacao domestication in pre-Columbian times revealed by archaeogenomic approaches’, Scientific Reports, 14. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Larco, L. (2008) Más allá de los encantos: documentos sobre extirpación de idolatrías, Trujillo. Lima: IFEA / Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Lee, M.R. (2009a) ‘The history of ergot of rye (Claviceps purpurea) I: from antiquity to 1900’, Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 39(2), pp. 179–184. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1478271520093902021. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Lilly, J.C. (1972) Programming and Metaprogramming in the Human Biocomputer: Theory and Experiments. New York: Julian Press. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Linnaeus, C. (1753) ‘Mimosa peregrina’, Species Plantarum, 1, p. 520. Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii. Available at: Biodiversity Heritage Library. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Llagostera, A. (2006) ‘Contextualización e iconografía de las tabletas psicotrópicas Tiwanaku de San Pedro de Atacama’, Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena, 38(1), pp. 83–111. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Louisiana State Legislature (2005, current text 2026) 'R.S. 40:989.1: Unlawful production, manufacture, distribution, or possession of hallucinogenic plants; exceptions'. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Lynch, T.F. (1980) Guitarrero Cave: Early Man in the Andes. New York: Academic Press. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Lynch, T.F., Gillespie, R., Gowlett, J.A.J. and Hedges, R.E.M. (1985) ‘Chronology of Guitarrero Cave, Peru’, Science, 229(4716), pp. 864–867. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.229.4716.864. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Magnuson, M. (2023) ‘The introduction of peyote into pharmaceutical and medical networks’, History of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals, 65(1), pp. 169–198. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Merlin, M.D. (2003) ‘Archaeological evidence for the tradition of psychoactive plant use in the Old World’, Economic Botany, 57, pp. 295–323. cited in
Papaver somniferum
Meyer, M.W. (ed.) (1999) The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Michienzi, A., Hamlin, J., Farah, R. and Bazydlo, L. (2024) 'Schedule I substances identified in nootropic gummies containing Amanita muscaria or other mushrooms—Charlottesville, Virginia, 2023–2024', MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 73(28), pp. 628–630. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Miller, M.J., Albarracin-Jordan, J., Moore, C. and Capriles, J.M. (2019) ‘Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(23), pp. 11207–11212. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1902174116. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina · Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Murra, J.V. (1986) ‘Notes on pre-Columbian cultivation of coca leaf’, in Pacini, D. and Franquemont, C. (eds) Coca and Cocaine: Effects on People and Policy in Latin America. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, pp. 49–53. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Mylonas, G.E. (1961) Eleusis and the Eleusinian Mysteries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. cited in
Claviceps purpurea · Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Naranjo, P. (1986) ‘El ayahuasca en la arqueología ecuatoriana’, América Indígena, 46(1), pp. 117–127. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Nesbitt, J. et al. (2025) ‘Psychoactive plants and secret rituals in ancient Peru’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(24), e2509867122. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2509867122. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Niemeyer, H.M., Salazar, D., Horta Tricallotis, H. and Peña-Gómez, F.T. (2015) 'New insights into the Tiwanaku style of snuff trays from San Pedro de Atacama, northern Chile', Latin American Antiquity, 26(1), pp. 120–136. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7183/1045-6635.26.1.120. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Niemeyer, H.M., Zapata, V., Cantillana, P., Missene, A., Aguilera, J. and Torres, A. (2013) 'Computed tomography study of snuff trays from San Pedro de Atacama (northern Chile)', Journal of Archaeological Science, 40(4), pp. 2036–2044. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.12.014. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Oram, M. (2016) ‘Prohibited or regulated? LSD psychotherapy and the United States Food and Drug Administration’, History of Psychiatry, 27(3), pp. 290–306. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957154X16648822. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Ostapkowicz, J. (2020) 'Conduits to the supernatural: bifurcated snuff tubes in the pre-Columbian Caribbean', Journal of Caribbean Archaeology, 20, pp. 45–67. Available at: journal PDF (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Ostapkowicz, J. et al. (2011) ‘“Treasures … of black wood, brilliantly polished”: five examples of Taíno sculpture from the tenth–sixteenth century Caribbean’, Antiquity, 85(329), pp. 942–959. Available at: publisher record. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Pagán-Jiménez, J.R. and Carlson, L.A. (2014) ‘Recent archaeobotanical findings of the hallucinogenic snuff cojoba (Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Speg.) in precolonial Puerto Rico’, Latin American Antiquity, 25(1), pp. 101–116. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7183/1045-6635.25.1.101. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Pané, R. (1999) An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians. Translated by S.C. Griswold. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Passie, T. (2018) ‘The early use of MDMA (“Ecstasy”) in psychotherapy (1977–1985)’, Drug Science, Policy and Law, 4, pp. 1–19. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/2050324518767442. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Pochettino, M.L., Cortella, A.R. and Ruiz, M. (1999) ‘Hallucinogenic snuff from northwestern Argentina: microscopical identification of Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil in powdered archaeological material’, Economic Botany, 53(2), pp. 127–132. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02866491. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Pons i Brun, E., Asensio, D., Fuertes, M. and Bouso, M. (2010) ‘El yacimiento del Mas Castellar de Pontós (Alt Empordà, Girona): un núcleo indígena en la órbita de la colonia focea de Emporion’, in Tréziny, H. (ed.) Grecs et indigènes de la Catalogne à la mer Noire. Aix-en-Provence: Publications du Centre Camille Jullian, pp. 105–118. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Pope, H.G. (1969) ‘Tabernanthe iboga: an African narcotic plant of social importance’, Economic Botany, 23, pp. 174–184. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860623. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Powis, T.G. et al. (2011) ‘Cacao use and the San Lorenzo Olmec’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(21), pp. 8595–8600. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Rick, J.W., Lema, V.S., Echeverría, J., Alva Valverde, G., Contreras, D.A., Arias Espinoza, O., Rosenfeld, S.A. and Sayre, M.P. (2025) ‘Pre-Hispanic ritual use of psychoactive plants at Chavín de Huántar, Peru’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(19), e2425125122. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2425125122. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Ruiz de Alarcón, H. (1984 [1629]) Treatise on the Heathen Superstitions That Today Live among the Indians Native to This New Spain, trans. and ed. J.R. Andrews and R. Hassig. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Sahagún, B. de (1950–1982) Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, trans. A.J.O. Anderson and C.E. Dibble. 12 books. Santa Fe: School of American Research and University of Utah. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa · Lophophora williamsii · Theobroma cacao
Saingam, D., Assanangkornchai, S., Geater, A.F. and Balthip, Q. (2013) ‘Pattern and consequences of krathom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) use among male villagers in southern Thailand: a qualitative study’, International Journal of Drug Policy, 24(4), pp. 351–358. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2012.09.004. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Saingam, D., Assanangkornchai, S., Geater, A.F. and Lerkiatbundit, S. (2014) ‘Validation of Krathom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) Dependence Scale (KDS): a dependence screen for internationally emerging psychoactive substance’, Substance Abuse, 35(3), pp. 276–283. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2014.924464. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Samorini, G. (2019) ‘The oldest archaeological data evidencing the relationship of Homo sapiens with psychoactive plants: a worldwide overview’, Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 3(2), pp. 63–80. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2019.008. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Samorini, G. (2024a) ‘Studies on the iboga cults. I. The ancient documents’, Antrocom Online Journal of Anthropology, 20(1), pp. 93–114. Available at: samorini.it. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Samorini, G. (2025b) ‘Studies on the iboga cults V: historical aspects’, Antrocom Online Journal of Anthropology, 21(1). cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Scher, S. (2021) ‘The Achumera: gender, status, and the San Pedro cactus in Moche ceramic motifs and iconography’, in Staller, J.E. (ed.) Andean Foodways: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Food and Culture. Cham: Springer, pp. 237–256. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51629-1_9. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Schultes, R.E. (1940) ‘Teonanácatl: the narcotic mushroom of the Aztecs’, American Anthropologist, 42(3), pp. 429–443. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1940.42.3.02a00040. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Schultes, R.E. (1986) ‘The history of a malpighiaceous plant of the Northwest Amazon’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 30(2), pp. 135–141. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Schultes, R.E. and Raffauf, R.F. (1992) Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, Their Plants and Rituals in the Colombian Amazonia. Oracle, AZ: Synergetic Press. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Ayahuasca Complex
Sharon, D. (2019) ‘Sacred Sanpedro in ethnoarchaeological context’, Ñawpa Pacha, 39(1), pp. 77–120. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00776297.2019.1574959. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Singh, D., Narayanan, S. and Vicknasingam, B. (2017) ‘Changing trends in the use of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) in Southeast Asia’, Human Psychopharmacology, 32(3), e2582. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2582. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Smakosz, A., Kurzyna, W., Rudko, M. and Dasal, M. (2021) ‘The usage of ergot (Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul.) in obstetrics and gynecology: a historical perspective’, Toxins, 13(7), 492. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13070492. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Socha, D.M., Sykutera, M. and Orefici, G. (2022) ‘Use of psychoactive and stimulant plants on the south coast of Peru from the Early Intermediate to Late Intermediate Period’, Journal of Archaeological Science, 148, 105688. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2022.105688. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Spanos, N.P. and Gottlieb, J. (1976) ‘Ergotism and the Salem Village witch trials’, Science, 194(4272), pp. 1390–1394. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.795029. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Spegazzini, C. (1923) ‘Anadenanthera peregrina’, Physis, 6, p. 314. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Spruce, R. (1908) Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes. Edited by A.R. Wallace. 2 vols. London: Macmillan. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina · Banisteriopsis caapi
Stolaroff, M.J. (2004) The Secret Chief Revealed: Conversations with Leo Zeff, Pioneer in the Underground Psychedelic Therapy Movement. Sarasota, FL: Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Suwanlert, S. (1975) ‘A study of kratom eaters in Thailand’, Bulletin on Narcotics, 27(3), pp. 21–27. Available at: unodc.org. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Terry, M., Steelman, K.L., Guilderson, T., Dering, P. and Rowe, M.W. (2006) ‘Lower Pecos and Coahuila peyote: new radiocarbon dates’, Journal of Archaeological Science, 33(7), pp. 1017–1021. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2005.11.008. cited in
Lophophora williamsii · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
The Metropolitan Museum of Art (2026) ‘Snuff tablet, Tiwanaku (?), 4th–8th century, object 2000.2’. Available at: metmuseum.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
The Metropolitan Museum of Art (2026) ‘Zemí cohoba stand, Taíno, object 1979.206.380’. Available at: metmuseum.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Tierney, M. (2022) ‘Beyond the San Pedro cactus: ancient Nasca shamanism and psychoactive plants’, Middle Atlantic Review of Latin American Studies, 6(2), pp. 287–313. Available at: https://doi.org/10.23870/marlas.405. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Torres, C.M. (1987) 'The iconography of the prehispanic snuff trays from San Pedro de Atacama, northern Chile', Andean Past, 1, pp. 191–254. Available at: institutional record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Torres, C.M. (1998) 'Archaeological evidence for the antiquity of psychoactive plant use in the central Andes', Eleusis, 1, pp. 12–44. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Torres, C.M. (2008) ‘Chavín’s psychoactive pharmacopeia: the iconographic evidence’, in Conklin, W.J. and Quilter, J. (eds.) Chavín: Art, Architecture, and Culture. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, pp. 237–260. cited in
Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Torres, C.M., Repke, D.B., Chan, K., McKenna, D., Llagostera, A. and Schultes, R.E. (1991) ‘Snuff powders from pre-Hispanic San Pedro de Atacama: chemical and contextual analysis’, Current Anthropology, 32(5), pp. 640–649. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1086/204014. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Tushingham, S., Snyder, C.M., Brownstein, K.J., Damitio, W.J. and Gang, D.R. (2018) ‘Biomolecular archaeology reveals ancient origins of Indigenous tobacco smoking in North American Plateau’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(46), pp. 11742–11747. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1813796115. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
United Kingdom (2016) Psychoactive Substances Act 2016, c. 2. London: The Stationery Office. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Valdés, L.J. III (2001) ‘The early history of Salvia divinorum’, Entheogen Review, 10(3), pp. 73–75. cited in
Salvia divinorum
van Dongen, P.W.J. and de Groot, A.N.J.A. (1995) ‘History of ergot alkaloids from ergotism to ergometrine’, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 60(2), pp. 109–116. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-2243(95)02034-Z. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Vellozo, J.M.C. (1829) ‘Mimosa colubrina’, Florae Fluminensis. Rio de Janeiro: Typographia Nationali. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Vicknasingam, B., Narayanan, S., Beng, G.T. and Mansor, S.M. (2010) ‘The informal use of ketum (Mitragyna speciosa) for opioid withdrawal in the northern states of peninsular Malaysia and implications for drug substitution therapy research’, International Journal of Drug Policy, 21(4), pp. 283–288. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.12.003. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Villavicencio, M. (1858) Geografía de la República del Ecuador. New York: Robert Craighead. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Viveiros de Castro, E. (1998) ‘Cosmological deixis and Amerindian perspectivism’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 4(3), pp. 469–488. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Wasson, R.G. (1957) ‘Seeking the magic mushroom’, Life, 13 May, pp. 100–120. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Wasson, R.G. (1962) ‘A new Mexican psychotropic drug from the mint family’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 20(3), pp. 77–84. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Wasson, R.G., Hofmann, A. and Ruck, C.A.P. (1978) The Road to Eleusis: Unveiling the Secret of the Mysteries. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. cited in
Claviceps purpurea · Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Williams, J. (2019) ‘“You are entering a new dimension”: John C. Lilly, the sensory isolation tank and the counterculture’, History of the Human Sciences, 32(5), pp. 3–26. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0952695119872094. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Yensen, R. and Dryer, D. (1992) ‘Thirty years of psychedelic research: the Spring Grove experiment and its sequels’, Yearbook of the European College for the Study of Consciousness, 1991–1992, pp. 73–102. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Zarrillo, S. et al. (2018) ‘The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon’, Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2, pp. 1879–1888. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Zimmermann, M.I., Brownstein, K.J., Pantoja Díaz, L., Ancona Aragón, I., Hutson, S., Kidder, B. and Gang, D.R. (2021) ‘Metabolomics-based analysis of miniature flask contents identifies tobacco mixture use among the ancient Maya’, Scientific Reports, 11, 1590. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-81158-y. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Art, music & material culture
02 · 14 sources
Belaunde, L.E. (ed.) (2009) Kené: arte, ciencia y tradición en diseño. Lima: Instituto Nacional de Cultura. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis
Brabec de Mori, B. (2013) ‘A medium of magical power: how to do things with voices in the western Amazon’, in Stepputat, K. (ed.) Performing Ethnomusicology. Vienna: Böhlau, pp. 105–125. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Brabec de Mori, B. and Mori Silvano de Brabec, L. (2009) ‘Shipibo-Konibo art and healing concepts: a critical view on the “aesthetic therapy”’, Viennese Ethnomedicine Newsletter, 11(2–3), pp. 18–26. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Brabec de Mori, B. and Mori Silvano de Brabec, L.E. (2009) ‘La corona de la inspiración. Los diseños geométricos de los Shipibo-Konibo y sus relaciones con cosmovisión y música’, Indiana, 26, pp. 105–134. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex
Gebhart-Sayer, A. (1985) ‘The geometric designs of the Shipibo-Conibo in ritual context’, Journal of Latin American Lore, 11(2), pp. 143–175. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis
GreenZeb (2013) ‘Calea ternifolia’, photograph via Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 3.0. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Hofford, C. (2018) ‘Calea ternifolia (syn. Calea zacatechichi) Dream Herb’, photograph at the United States Botanic Garden, via Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Huxley, A. (1954) The Doors of Perception. London: Chatto & Windus. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Kindl, O. (2003) La jícara huichola: un microcosmos mesoamericano. Mexico City and Guadalajara: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia and Universidad de Guadalajara. cited in
Lophophora williamsii · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Klüver, H. (1928) Mescal: The “Divine” Plant and Its Psychological Effects. London: Kegan Paul. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Luna, L.E. and Amaringo, P. (1991) Ayahuasca Visions: The Religious Iconography of a Peruvian Shaman. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex
McAllester, D.P. (1949) Peyote Music. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology 13. New York: Viking Fund. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Rizzone, M. (2008) ‘Calea flowering’, photograph via Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Swan, D.C. (1999) Peyote Religious Art: Symbols of Faith and Belief. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Botany & taxonomy
03 · 166 sources
Albesiano, S. (2012) ‘A new taxonomic treatment of the genus Trichocereus (Cactaceae) in Chile’, Haseltonia, 18, pp. 116–139. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2985/026.018.0114. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Anderson, E.F. (1996) Peyote: The Divine Cactus. 2nd edn. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Anderson, W.R. and Davis, C.C. (2006) ‘Expansion of Diplopterys at the expense of Banisteriopsis (Malpighiaceae)’, Harvard Papers in Botany, 11(1), pp. 1–16. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Andrade, C.M.L. et al. (2025) ‘Establishment of Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. callus cultures, plantlet regeneration and in vitro production of the hallucinogenic indole alkaloid N,N-dimethyltryptamine’, Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 161, 65. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Argout, X. et al. (2011) ‘The genome of Theobroma cacao’, Nature Genetics, 43, pp. 101–108. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Bachman, S.P., Brown, M.J.M., Leão, T.C.C., Lughadha, E.N. and Walker, B.E. (2024) ‘Extinction risk predictions for the world’s flowering plants to support their conservation’, New Phytologist, 242(2), pp. 797–808. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.19592. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Salvia divinorum
Baillon, H.E. (1888) ‘Tabernanthe iboga’, Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris, 1, p. 783. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Bernal, R., Gradstein, S.R. and Celis, M. (eds.) (2020) ‘Anadenanthera peregrina’, Useful Plants and Fungi of Colombia. Available at: colplanta.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Bernal, R., Gradstein, S.R. and Celis, M. (eds) (2015) Catálogo de plantas y líquenes de Colombia. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Bessa, P. (1819) ‘Brugmansia suaveolens as Datura arborea’, in Duhamel du Monceau, H.-L., Traité des arbres et arbustes, new edn, vol. 7, plate 1. Available via Wikimedia Commons. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
BGCI and IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group (2019) ‘Tabernanthe iboga’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, e.T120678584A143718006. Available at: iucnredlist.org. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Biazatti, S.C. et al. (2026) ‘Machine learning recovers folk classification of Banisteriopsis caapi from herbarium leaves, an ayahuasca liana’, iScience, 29(5), 115753. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Bonifácio-Anacleto, F., Moraes Filho, R.M., Borges, L.M., Martinez, C.A. and Alzate-Marin, A.L. (2024) ‘Molecular discrimination for two Anadenanthera species of seasonally dry tropical forest remnants in Brazil’, Taxonomy, 4(1), pp. 150–162. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/taxonomy4010008. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina
Borges, L.A., Machado, I.C. and Lopes, A.V. (2017) ‘Bee pollination and evidence of substitutive nectary in Anadenanthera colubrina (Leguminosae-Mimosoideae)’, Arthropod-Plant Interactions, 11, pp. 263–271. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-017-9514-8. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Brenan, J.P.M. (1955) ‘Notes on Mimosoideae: I’, Kew Bulletin, 10(2), pp. 161–192. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/4108864. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Brito-da-Costa, A.M., Dias-da-Silva, D. and Gomes, N.G.M. (2020) ‘Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of ayahuasca alkaloids N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine: clinical and forensic impact’, Pharmaceuticals, 13(11), 334. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis
Britton, N.L. and Rose, J.N. (1920) The Cactaceae, vol. 2. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution, pp. 134–135. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Bruhn, J.G., De Smet, P.A.G.M., El-Seedi, H.R. and Beck, O. (2002) ‘Mescaline use for 5700 years’, The Lancet, 359(9320), p. 1866. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08701-9. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Callaway, J.C. et al. (1996) ‘Quantitation of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and harmala alkaloids in human plasma after oral dosing with ayahuasca’, Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 20(6), pp. 492–497. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Callaway, J.C. et al. (1999) ‘Pharmacokinetics of hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 65(3), pp. 243–256. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis
Camargo-Ricalde, S.L. (2000) 'Descripción, distribución, anatomía, composición química y usos de Mimosa tenuiflora (Fabaceae-Mimosoideae) en México', Revista de Biología Tropical, 48(4), pp. 939–954. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Caputo, L., Cornara, L., Bazzicalupo, M. et al. (2021) ‘Mentha pulegium L.: a plant underestimated for its toxicity to be recovered from the perspective of the circular economy’, Molecules, 26(8), 2394. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26082394. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Carboué, Q. and Lopez, M. (2021) ‘Amanita muscaria: ecology, chemistry, myths’, Encyclopedia, 1(3), pp. 905–914. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1030069. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Casselman, I., Nock, C.J., Wohlmuth, H., Weatherby, R.P. and Heinrich, M. (2014) ‘From local to global—fifty years of research on Salvia divinorum’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 151(2), pp. 768–783. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.032. cited in
Salvia divinorum · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Chan, C.B.M. et al. (2021) ‘The alkaloids from Lophophora diffusa and other “false peyotes”’, Journal of Natural Products, 84(8), pp. 2398–2407. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Cornejo, O.E. et al. (2018) ‘Population genomic analyses of the chocolate tree, Theobroma cacao L., provide insights into its domestication process’, Communications Biology, 1, 167. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Coulter, J.M. (1894) ‘Preliminary revision of the North American species of Cactus, Anhalonium and Lophophora’, Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 3, pp. 91–132. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Cuatrecasas, J. (1958) ‘Prima Flora Colombiana: 2. Malpighiaceae’, Webbia, 13(2), pp. 343–664. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Davis, C.C. and Anderson, W.R. (2010) ‘A complete generic phylogeny of Malpighiaceae inferred from nucleotide sequence data and morphology’, American Journal of Botany, 97(12), pp. 2031–2048. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
DMTrott (2017/2022) ‘Oliluiqui seeds’, photograph via Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Dung, J.K.S., Alderman, S.C., Kaur, N. and Walenta, D.L. (2021) ‘Ergot of grasses: disease biology and management’, Phytopathology, 111(10), pp. 1727–1737. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1094/PHYTO-07-20-0289-R. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Dupin, J. and Smith, S.D. (2018) ‘Phylogenetics of Datureae (Solanaceae), including description of the new genus Trompettia and re-circumscription of the tribe’, Taxon, 67(2), pp. 359–375. Available at: https://doi.org/10.12705/672.6. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Durante, Í., dos Santos, R.G., Bouso, J.C. et al. (2021) ‘Risk assessment of ayahuasca use in a religious context: self-reported risk factors and adverse effects’, Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 43(4), pp. 362–369. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2020-0913. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Elser, D. et al. (2023) ‘Evolutionary metabolomics of specialized metabolism in the genus Nicotiana’, Science Advances, 9, eade8984. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ade8984. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
EP1688048A1 (2006) ‘Coca leaf-based beverage and process for obtaining coca leaf extract’. European patent application. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Epling, C. and Játiva-M., C.D. (1962) ‘A new species of Salvia from Mexico’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 20(3), pp. 75–76. Available at: jstor.org. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Ermakova, A.O. et al. (2021) ‘Densities, plant sizes, and spatial distributions of six wild populations of Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae) in Texas, U.S.A.’, Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 15(1), pp. 149–160. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Eserman, L.A., Tiley, G.P., Jarret, R.L., Leebens-Mack, J.H. and Miller, R.E. (2014) ‘Phylogenetics and diversification of morning glories (tribe Ipomoeeae, Convolvulaceae) based on whole plastome sequences’, American Journal of Botany, 101(1), pp. 92–103. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1300207. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Fonseca, A.M., dos Santos, R.G., de Medeiros, L.S. et al. (2025) ‘Long-term ayahuasca use is associated with preserved global cognitive function and improved memory: a cross-sectional study with ritual users’, European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 275(2), pp. 519–531. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-024-01817-9. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Gates, B. (1982) Banisteriopsis, Diplopterys (Malpighiaceae). Flora Neotropica Monograph 30. New York: New York Botanical Garden. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Geml, J., Laursen, G.A., O’Neill, K., Nusbaum, H.C. and Taylor, D.L. (2006) ‘Beringian origins and cryptic speciation events in the fly agaric (Amanita muscaria)’, Molecular Ecology, 15(1), pp. 225–239. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02799.x. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Geml, J., Tulloss, R.E., Laursen, G.A., Sazanova, N.A. and Taylor, D.L. (2008) ‘Evidence for strong inter- and intracontinental phylogeographic structure in Amanita muscaria, a wind-dispersed ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete’, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 48(2), pp. 694–701. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2008.04.029. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Gibson, S.D., Halvorson, K.S., Myers, L. and Colla, S.R. (2022) ‘Insect visitation and pollination of a culturally significant plant, Hopi tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)’, iScience, 25(12), 105613. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105613. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Grünewald, M. (1512–1516) The Temptation of Saint Anthony, Isenheim Altarpiece. Colmar: Musée Unterlinden. Public-domain reproduction via Wikimedia Commons. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Guzmán, G. (1983) The Genus Psilocybe. Vaduz: J. Cramer. cited in
Psilocybe cubensis
Guzmán, G. (2012) ‘New taxonomical and ethnomycological observations on Psilocybe s.s. (Fungi, Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetidae, Agaricales, Strophariaceae) from Mexico, Africa and Spain’, Acta Botanica Mexicana, 100, pp. 79–106. Available at: https://doi.org/10.21829/abm100.2012.32. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Hamilton, C.W. (1989) ‘A revision of Mesoamerican Psychotria subgenus Psychotria (Rubiaceae), part I’, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 76(1), pp. 67–111. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Hay, A., Gottschalk, M. and Holguín, A. (2012) Huanduj: Brugmansia. Richmond: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Hernández, F. (1651) ‘Ololiuhqui’, botanical woodcut in Rerum medicarum Novae Hispaniae thesaurus, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Hunt, D., Taylor, N. and Charles, G. (eds) (2006) The New Cactus Lexicon. Milborne Port: dh Books. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Index Fungorum (2026) ‘Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam., Record ID 161267’. Available at: indexfungorum.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Index Fungorum (2026) ‘Psilocybe mexicana R. Heim, record 304487’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: indexfungorum.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
International Plant Names Index (IPNI) (2026) ‘Nicotiana rustica L.’ Available at: ipni.org/n/817055-1 (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Jacquin, O. (2009) ‘Stromata germinating from a sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea’, photograph via Wikimedia Commons. GFDL / CC BY-SA. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Jastrzębski, M.K., Kaczor, A.A. and Wróbel, T.M. (2022) ‘Methods of lysergic acid synthesis—the key ergot alkaloid’, Molecules, 27(21), 7322. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27217322. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Jenks, A.A., Walker, J.B. and Kim, S.-C. (2011) ‘Evolution and origins of the Mazatec hallucinogenic sage, Salvia divinorum (Lamiaceae): a molecular phylogenetic approach’, Journal of Plant Research, 124, pp. 593–600. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10265-010-0394-6. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Juan-Tresserras, J. (2002) ‘La arqueología de las drogas en la Península Ibérica: una síntesis de las recientes investigaciones arqueobotánicas’, in Fábregas Valcarce, R. (ed.) Os alucinóxenos e a arqueoloxía. Santiago de Compostela: Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, pp. 101–121. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Kew Science (2026) 'Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir.', Plants of the World Online. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Kew Science (2026a) Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) C.V.Morton. Plants of the World Online. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Kew Science (2026b) Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. Plants of the World Online. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Kew Science (2026c) Diplopterys cabrerana (Cuatrec.) B.Gates. Plants of the World Online. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Korthals, P.W. (1839–1842) ‘Mitragyna speciosa’, botanical plate 35 in Kruidkunde, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Korthals, P.W. (1841) ‘Mitragyna speciosa’, Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche bezittingen: Botanie, plate 35. Leiden: in commission with S. and J. Luchtmans and C.C. van der Hoek. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Kowalczuk, A.P. et al. (2015) ‘Identification challenges in examination of commercial plant material of Psychotria viridis’, Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica, 72(4), pp. 747–755. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Krüger, M. (2024) ‘Erythroxylum coca with fruits and leaves’, photograph via Wikimedia Commons. CC BY 4.0. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Kunth, C.S. (1818) ‘Calea ternifolia’, in Humboldt, F.W.H.A., Bonpland, A.J.A. and Kunth, C.S., Nova Genera et Species Plantarum, 4, p. 231. Paris. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Lahive, F., Hadley, P. and Daymond, A.J. (2019) ‘The physiological responses of cacao to the environment and the implications for climate change resilience’, Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39, 5. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Lamarck, J.-B. (1786) ‘Coca’, Encyclopédie Méthodique, Botanique, 2, p. 393. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Laszlo, C., Kaminski, K., Guan, H., Fatarova, M., Wei, J. and Zhang, H. (2022) ‘Fractionation and extraction optimization of potentially valuable compounds and their profiling in six varieties of two Nicotiana species’, Molecules, 27(22), 8105. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27228105. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Lewis, G., Schrire, B., Mackinder, B. and Lock, M. (eds.) (2005) Legumes of the World. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Linnaeus, C. (1753) Species Plantarum, vol. 1. Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius, p. 180. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Lockwood, T.E. (1973) ‘Generic recognition of Brugmansia’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 23(6), pp. 273–283. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5962/p.168561. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Machuca Machuca, K. (2022) ‘Psychotria viridis’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Malmberg, K. (2019) ‘Rye ergot (Claviceps purpurea)’, photograph via iNaturalist and Wikimedia Commons. CC BY 4.0. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Mangaravite, É. et al. (2024) ‘Taxonomy of Anadenanthera (Leguminosae): insights from molecular genetics of four evolving species’, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 204(1), pp. 47–62. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/botlinnean/boad037. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Mangaravite, É. et al. (2024) ‘Unlocking the secret diversity of Anadenanthera: insights from molecular genetics of four evolving species’, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 204(1), pp. 47–62. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/botlinnean/boad037. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Mata, R., Contreras-Rosales, A.J., Gutiérrez-González, J.A., Villaseñor, J.L. and Pérez-Vásquez, A. (2022) ‘Calea ternifolia Kunth, the Mexican “dream herb”, a concise review’, Botany, 100(2), pp. 261–274. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1139/cjb-2021-0063. cited in
Calea zacatechichi · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
McKenna, D.J., Towers, G.H.N. and Abbott, F. (1984) ‘Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and β-carboline constituents of ayahuasca’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 10(2), pp. 195–223. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(84)90003-5. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Metropolitan Museum of Art (n.d.) ‘Lime container (poporo), Quimbaya, 1st–7th century CE’, photograph by Xuan Che via Wikimedia Commons. CC BY 2.0. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Miedaner, T. and Geiger, H.H. (2015) ‘Biology, genetics, and management of ergot (Claviceps spp.) in rye, sorghum, and pearl millet’, Toxins, 7(3), pp. 659–678. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins7030659. cited in
Claviceps purpurea · Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Miranda, O.F. et al. (2020) ‘Influence of environment on the leaf morpho-anatomy and histochemical of the ayahuasca leaf’, Acta Scientiarum. Biological Sciences, 42, e50369. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Motamayor, J.C. et al. (2008) ‘Geographic and genetic population differentiation of the Amazonian chocolate tree (Theobroma cacao L.)’, PLoS ONE, 3(10), e3311. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Motamayor, J.C. et al. (2013) ‘The genome sequence of the most widely cultivated cacao type and its use to identify candidate genes regulating pod color’, Genome Biology, 14, R53. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Muñoz-Rodríguez, P., Carruthers, T., Wood, J.R.I. et al. (2019) ‘A taxonomic monograph of Ipomoea integrated across phylogenetic scales’, Nature Plants, 5, pp. 1136–1144. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-019-0535-4. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
MycoBank (2026) ‘Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul., MycoBank 162059’. Available at: mycobank.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Newbold, R.W., De Silva, S. and Terry, M. (2020) ‘Correlation of mescaline concentrations in Lophophora williamsii with rib number and diameter’, Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 14(1), pp. 103–120. Available at: https://doi.org/10.17348/jbrit.v14.i1.901. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Nichols, D.E. (2016) ‘Psychedelics’, Pharmacological Reviews, 68(2), pp. 264–355. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Nickles, G.R., Stokes, C.K., Narh, D.L. et al. (2026) ‘Equipped for success: genomes and metabolomes of the European Amanita muscaria are conserved in its novel South African range’, New Phytologist, 250(3), pp. 1863–1883. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.71064. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Nousias, O. et al. (2024) ‘Three de novo assembled wild cacao genomes from the Upper Amazon’, Scientific Data, 11, 369. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Oda, T., Tanaka, C. and Tsuda, M. (2004) 'Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the widely distributed Amanita species, A. muscaria and A. pantherina', Mycological Research, 108(8), pp. 885–896. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Ostolaza, C., Cáceres, F. and Roque, J. (2017) ‘Echinopsis pachanoi’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, e.T152445A121474583. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T152445A121474583.en. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Pažoutová, S., Pešicová, K., Chudíčková, M., Šrůtka, P. and Kolařík, M. (2015) ‘Delimitation of cryptic species inside Claviceps purpurea’, Fungal Biology, 119(1), pp. 7–26. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2014.10.003. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Pelayo-Delgado, P. et al. (2025) ‘Entre el humo y lo sagrado: conocimiento, usos y cosmovisión de Nicotiana tabacum entre los mazatecos de Huautla de Jiménez, Oaxaca’, Botanical Sciences, 103(2), pp. 431–451. Available at: https://doi.org/10.17129/botsci.3625. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Píchová, K., Pažoutová, S., Kostovčík, M., Chudíčková, M., Stodůlková, E., Novák, P., Flieger, M., van der Linde, E. and Kolařík, M. (2018) ‘Evolutionary history of ergot with a new infrageneric classification (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae: Claviceps)’, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 123, pp. 73–87. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2018.02.013. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis and Mimosa tenuiflora’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Brugmansia suaveolens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Sweet’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) H.Friedrich & G.D.Rowley’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 6 August 2026). cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Erythroxylum coca Lam.’ Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Ipomoea corymbosa (L.) Roth’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Lophophora williamsii (Lem. ex J.F.Cels) J.M.Coult.’ Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Mitragyna speciosa Korth.’ Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Nicotiana rustica L.’ Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Nicotiana rustica · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Salvia divinorum · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026) ‘Tabernanthe iboga Baill.’ Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026a) ‘Calea ternifolia Kunth’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026a) ‘Hordeum vulgare L.’ Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026b) ‘Brugmansia arborea (L.) Sweet’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026b) ‘Calea zacatechichi Schltdl.’ Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026b) ‘Mentha pulegium L.’ Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Plants of the World Online (POWO) (2026d) ‘Erythroxylum coca var. coca’. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available at: powo.science.kew.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Plowman, T. (1979) ‘Botanical perspectives on coca’, Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 11(1–2), pp. 103–117. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1979.10472095. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Plowman, T. (1981) ‘Amazonian coca’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 3(2–3), pp. 195–225. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(81)90054-4. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Plowman, T. (1984) ‘The ethnobotany of coca (Erythroxylum spp., Erythroxylaceae)’, Advances in Economic Botany, 1, pp. 62–111. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Przelomska, N.A.S., Diaz, R.A., Ávila, F.A., Ballen, G.A., Cortés-B., R., Kistler, L., Chitwood, D.H., Charitonidou, M., Renner, S.S., Pérez-Escobar, O.A. and Antonelli, A. (2024) ‘Morphometrics and phylogenomics of coca (Erythroxylum spp.) illuminate its reticulate evolution, with implications for taxonomy’, Molecular Biology and Evolution, 41(7), msae114. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msae114. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Puff, C., Chayamarit, K., Chamchumroon, V. and Esser, H.-J. (2021) Flora of Thailand, 15(1): Rubiaceae. Bangkok: Forest Herbarium, Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Raman, V., Wang, Y.-H., Saroja, S.G. et al. (2023) ‘Characterization of Calea ternifolia and its adulterant Chromolaena odorata using macro-microscopy, HPTLC and UHPLC-UV–MS’, Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 33, pp. 790–801. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43450-023-00411-9. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Ramírez Marcial, N. (2016) ‘Christmas vine’, photograph via iNaturalist and Wikimedia Commons. CC BY 4.0. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Ramos, L.R., Fernandes, O. Jr, Sanchez, T.A. et al. (2025) ‘Resilience and brain changes in long-term ayahuasca users: insights from psychometric and fMRI pattern recognition’, Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/jmri.70063. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Reisfield, A.S. (1993) ‘The botany of Salvia divinorum (Labiatae)’, SIDA, Contributions to Botany, 15(3), pp. 349–366. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Restrepo, D.A., Saenz, E., Jara-Muñoz, O.A., Calixto-Botía, I.F., Rodríguez-Suárez, S., Zuleta, P., Chavez, B.G. and Sanchez, J.A. (2019) ‘Erythroxylum in focus: an interdisciplinary review of an overlooked genus’, Molecules, 24(20), 3788. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24203788. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Riba, J., Rodríguez-Fornells, A., Urbano, G., Morte, A., Antonijoan, R., Montero, M., Callaway, J.C. and Barbanoj, M.J. (2001) ‘Subjective effects and tolerability of the South American psychoactive beverage ayahuasca in healthy volunteers’, Psychopharmacology, 154(1), pp. 85–95. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s002130000606. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Riba, J., Valle, M., Urbano, G., Yritia, M., Morte, A. and Barbanoj, M.J. (2003) ‘Human pharmacology of ayahuasca: subjective and cardiovascular effects, monoamine metabolite excretion, and pharmacokinetics’, Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 306(1), pp. 73–83. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.103.049882. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Rodríguez, C., Rolland, A., O’Neill, B., Dansereau, C. and López, V. (2022) ‘Chemical profiling and comparison of ayahuasca samples’, ACS Omega, 7(14), pp. 12301–12311. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c00795. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Roth, A.W. (1819) ‘Ipomoea corymbosa’, in Roemer, J.J. and Schultes, J.A., Systema Vegetabilium, ed. 15 bis, vol. 4, p. 232. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (2026) ‘Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) C.V.Morton’, Plants of the World Online. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (2026) ‘Diplopterys cabrerana (Cuatrec.) B.Gates’, Plants of the World Online. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (2026) ‘Lophophora williamsii (Lem. ex J.F.Cels) J.M.Coult.’, Plants of the World Online. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (2026) ‘Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav.’, Plants of the World Online. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (2026) ‘Theobroma cacao L.’, Plants of the World Online. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (POWO) (2026a) 'Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Speg.', Plants of the World Online. Available at: POWO record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (POWO) (2026b) 'Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan', Plants of the World Online. Available at: POWO record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (POWO) (2026c) 'Dianthera pectoralis (Jacq.) Murray', Plants of the World Online. Available at: POWO record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (POWO) (2026d) 'Nicotiana rustica L.', Plants of the World Online. Available at: POWO record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (POWO) (2026e) 'Virola theiodora (Spruce ex Benth.) Warb.', Plants of the World Online. Available at: POWO record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Ruiz, H. and Pavón, J. (1799) ‘Psychotria viridis’, Flora Peruviana, et Chilensis, 2, p. 61, plate 210, fig. b. Madrid. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Samoylenko, V. et al. (2010) ‘Banisteriopsis caapi, a unique combination of MAO inhibitory and antioxidative constituents for the activities relevant to neurodegenerative disorders and Parkinson’s disease’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 127(2), pp. 357–367. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Santamaría-Aguilar, D. and Lagomarsino, L.P. (2022) 'New species of Virola (Myristicaceae) from South America', PhytoKeys, 197, pp. 81–148. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Santos, B.W.L., Moreira, D.C., Borges, T.K.S. and Caldas, E.D. (2022) ‘Components of Banisteriopsis caapi, a plant used in the preparation of the psychoactive ayahuasca, induce anti-inflammatory effects in microglial cells’, Molecules, 27(8), 2500. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27082500. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Santos, B.W.L., Oliveira, R.C., Sonsin-Oliveira, J., Fagg, C.W., Barbosa, J.B.F., Caldas, E.D. and Sampaio, S.V. (2020) ‘Biodiversity of β-carboline profile of Banisteriopsis caapi and ayahuasca, a plant and a brew with neuropharmacological potential’, Plants, 9(7), 870. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9070870. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Schlechtendal, D.F.L. von (1835) ‘Calea zacatechichi’, Linnaea, 9, pp. 589–590. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Schlumpberger, B.O. and Renner, S.S. (2012) ‘Molecular phylogenetics of Echinopsis (Cactaceae): polyphyly at all levels and convergent evolution of pollination modes and growth forms’, American Journal of Botany, 99(8), pp. 1335–1349. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1100288. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Sierro, N., Battey, J.N.D., Ouadi, S., Bakaher, N., Bovet, L., Willig, A., Goepfert, S., Peitsch, M.C. and Ivanov, N.V. (2018) ‘The impact of genome evolution on the allotetraploid Nicotiana rustica—an intriguing story of enhanced alkaloid production’, BMC Genomics, 19, 855. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-018-5241-5. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Souza, R.S.O. de et al. (2008) 'Jurema-preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poir.): a review of its traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology', Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology, 51(5), pp. 937–947. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Spiers, N., Labate, B.C., Ermakova, A.O., Farrell, P., González Romero, O.S., Gabriell, I. and Olvera, N. (2024) ‘Indigenous psilocybin mushroom practices: an annotated bibliography’, Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 8(1), pp. 3–25. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2023.00297. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Stang, D.J. (2005) ‘Mitragyna speciosa’, photograph at the United States Botanic Garden, via Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Sukrong, S., Zhu, H., Rungruang, S. et al. (2023) ‘Seasonal and geographic variation in alkaloid content of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) from Thailand’, Plants, 12(4), 949. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040949. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Sun, Y.-L. et al. (2025) ‘Binding properties of chemosensory protein 1 to plant volatiles involved in Nicotiana rustica recognition in Helicoverpa armigera’, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 73(11), pp. 6622–6631. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5c01664. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Sweet, R. (1818) ‘Brugmansia suaveolens’, Hortus Suburbanus Londinensis, p. 41. London: James Ridgway. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Tan, H. et al. (2026) ‘Near T2T haplotype-resolved genomes of cacao (Theobroma cacao) variety CCN51’, Scientific Data, 13, 163. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Thehealingeast (2018) ‘Kratom leaves’, photograph via Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Tulasne, L.-R. (1853) ‘Mémoire sur l’ergot des Glumacées’, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Botanique, series 3, 20, pp. 5–56. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
US4696819A (1987) ‘Non-cocaine containing coca leaf extract’. United States patent. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
US4956429A (1990) ‘Method of making a coca leaf flavor extract’. United States patent. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Van de Sande, E.N. et al. (2026) ‘Revisiting cacao pollination: new behavioural and pollen-based evidence for the key role of Ceratopogonidae’, Basic and Applied Ecology, 94, pp. 24–33. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Varani, A.M. et al. (2022) ‘The complete organellar genomes of the entheogenic plant Psychotria viridis (Rubiaceae), a main component of the ayahuasca brew’, PeerJ, 10, e14114. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Vonk, G.J.A. (1989) ‘Revision of the genus Tabernanthe (Apocynaceae)’, Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen, 89(4), pp. 1–18. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Wang, Y.-H. et al. (2010) ‘Composition, standardization and chemical profiling of Banisteriopsis caapi, a plant for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders relevant to Parkinson’s disease’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 128(3), pp. 662–671. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Wellcome Collection (c. 1867) ‘Women gathering leaves of the coca plant in Bolivia’, wood engraving after Henry Walter Bates. CC BY 4.0. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
White, D.M., Huang, J.-P., Jara-Muñoz, O.A., Madriñán, S., Ree, R.H. and Mason-Gamer, R.J. (2021) ‘The origins of coca: museum genomics reveals multiple independent domestications from progenitor Erythroxylum gracilipes’, Systematic Biology, 70(1), pp. 1–13. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syaa074. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Willdenow, C.L. (1809) ‘Datura suaveolens’, Enumeratio Plantarum Horti Regii Botanici Berolinensis. Berlin: Taberna Libraria Scholae Realis. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Witte, T.E. et al. (2023) ‘Chromosome-level draft genome sequences of three isolates of the toxigenic fungus Claviceps purpurea showing structural rearrangements’, Microbiology Resource Announcements, 12(10), e00234-23. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1128/mra.00234-23. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Wood, J.R.I., Muñoz-Rodríguez, P., Williams, B.R.M. and Scotland, R.W. (2020) ‘A foundation monograph of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) in the New World’, PhytoKeys, 143, pp. 1–823. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.143.32821. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
World Flora Online (WFO) (2026) ‘Nicotiana rustica L., WFO-0001023949’. Available at: worldfloraonline.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Wussow, J.R., Urbatsch, L.E. and Sullivan, G.A. (1985) ‘Calea (Asteraceae) in Mexico, Central America, and Jamaica’, Systematic Botany, 10(2), pp. 241–267. Available at: JSTOR 2418590. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Wyka, S.A. et al. (2022) ‘A large accessory genome and high recombination rates may contribute to the success of Claviceps purpurea as an agricultural pathogen’, PLOS ONE, 17(2), e0263496. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263496. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Chemistry & pharmacology
04 · 157 sources
Agurell, S., Holmstedt, B. and Lindgren, J.-E. (1968) ‘Alkaloid content of Banisteriopsis rusbyana’, American Journal of Pharmacy, 140, pp. 148–151. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Agurell, S., Holmstedt, B., Lindgren, J.-E. and Schultes, R.E. (1969) 'Alkaloids in certain species of Virola and other South American plants of ethnopharmacologic interest', Acta Chemica Scandinavica, 23, pp. 903–916. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Akyürek, E.G., Altınok, A. and Karabay, A. (2025) ‘Concurrent consumption of cocoa flavanols and caffeine does not acutely modulate working memory and attention’, European Journal of Nutrition, 64, article 35. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Algradi, A.M., Liu, Y., Yang, B.-Y. and Kuang, H.-X. (2021) ‘Review on the genus Brugmansia: traditional usage, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicity’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 279, 113910. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.113910. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Alper, K.R., Stajić, M. and Gill, J.R. (2012) ‘Fatalities temporally associated with the ingestion of ibogaine’, Journal of Forensic Sciences, 57(2), pp. 398–412. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.02008.x. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Altınok, A., Moruzzi, M. and Akyürek, E.G. (2025) ‘Acute effects of cocoa flavanols on cognitive control and response inhibition’, Nutrition, 139, 112860. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Antonopoulos, R.K., Dadiotis, E., Ioannidis, K. et al. (2026) ‘Investigating the psychedelic hypothesis of kykeon, the sacred elixir of the Eleusinian Mysteries’, Scientific Reports, 16, 8757. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-39568-3. cited in
Claviceps purpurea · Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Araújo, J.I.F. et al. (2025) 'Neuropharmacological potential of Mimosa tenuiflora in adult zebrafish', Behavioural Brain Research, 481, 115415. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Avula, B., Sagi, S., Wang, Y.-H. et al. (2026) ‘Quantitative analysis of 7-hydroxymitragynine in commercial kratom products and its stability under chemical and physiological conditions’, Phytochemistry, 247, 114871. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2026.114871. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Bading-Taika, B. et al. (2018) ‘Phytochemical characterization of Tabernanthe iboga root bark and its effects on dysfunctional metabolism and cognitive performance in high-fat-fed C57BL/6J mice’, Journal of Food Bioactives, 3, pp. 111–123. Available at: https://doi.org/10.31665/JFB.2018.3154. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Baggott, M.J. et al. (2013) ‘Psychopharmacology of theobromine in healthy volunteers’, Psychopharmacology, 228(1), pp. 109–118. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Bartlett, M.F., Dickel, D.F. and Taylor, W.I. (1958) ‘The alkaloids of Tabernanthe iboga. Part IV: the structures of ibogamine, ibogaine, tabernanthine and voacangine’, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 80(1), pp. 126–136. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01534a036. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Beaulieu, W.T., Panaccione, D.G., Quach, Q.N., Smoot, K.L. and Clay, K. (2021) ‘Diversification of ergot alkaloids and heritable fungal symbionts in morning glories’, Communications Biology, 4, 1362. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-021-02870-z. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Beaulieu, W.T., Panaccione, D.G., Ryan, K.L., Kaonongbua, W. and Clay, K. (2015) ‘Phylogenetic and chemotypic diversity of Periglandula species in eight new morning glory hosts (Convolvulaceae)’, Mycologia, 107(4), pp. 667–678. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3852/14-239. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Berman, P. et al. (2024) ‘The biosynthetic pathway of the hallucinogen mescaline and its heterologous reconstruction’, Molecular Plant, 17(7), pp. 1129–1150. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Bork, P.M., Schmitz, M.L., Kuhnt, M., Escher, C. and Heinrich, M. (1997) ‘Sesquiterpene lactone containing Mexican Indian medicinal plants and pure sesquiterpene lactones as potent inhibitors of transcription factor NF-κB’, FEBS Letters, 402(1), pp. 85–90. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-5793(96)01502-5. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Bouso, J.C. et al. (2020) ‘An analytical study of iboga alkaloids contained in Tabernanthe iboga-derived products offered by ibogaine treatment providers’, Revista de Psiquiatria Clínica, 47(2), pp. 45–51. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/0101-60830000000231. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Calado, S. et al. (2025) ‘Salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum: toxicology, pharmacological profile, and therapeutic potential’, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(12), 5588. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26125588. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Callaway, J.C., Brito, G.S. and Neves, E.S. (2005) ‘Phytochemical analyses of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 37(2), pp. 145–150. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2005.10399895. cited in
Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Calvert, M.B. and Sperry, J. (2015) 'Bioinspired total synthesis and structural revision of yuremamine', Chemical Communications, 51(28), pp. 6202–6205. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Carbonaro, T.M. and Gatch, M.B. (2016) ‘Neuropharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine’, Brain Research Bulletin, 126, pp. 74–88. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Mimosa tenuiflora · Psychotria viridis
Cassels, B.K. and Sáez-Briones, P. (2018) ‘Dark classics in chemical neuroscience: mescaline’, ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 9(10), pp. 2448–2458. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00215. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Lophophora williamsii · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Cavalcante, A.D. et al. (2018) ‘Influence of environmental factors and cultural methods on the content of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in Psychotria viridis (Rubiaceae)’, Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, 29, pp. 1245–1255. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Chavez, B.G. et al. (2022) ‘Elucidation of tropane alkaloid biosynthesis in Erythroxylum coca using a microbial pathway discovery platform’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(49), e2215372119. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2215372119. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Chear, N.J.-Y., León, F., Sharma, A. et al. (2021) ‘Exploring the chemistry of alkaloids from Malaysian Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) and the role of oxindoles on human opioid receptors’, Journal of Natural Products, 84(4), pp. 1034–1043. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c01055. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Cherewyk, J.E. et al. (2024) ‘The C-8-S-isomers of ergot alkaloids—a review of biological and toxicological activity’, Mycotoxin Research, 40, pp. 1–19. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-023-00507-0. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Cunningham, C.W., Rothman, R.B. and Prisinzano, T.E. (2011) ‘Neuropharmacology of the naturally occurring κ-opioid hallucinogen salvinorin A’, Pharmacological Reviews, 63(2), pp. 316–347. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.110.003244. cited in
Salvia divinorum
da Costa, S.P. et al. (2023) ‘Therapeutic potential of bioactive compounds from Brugmansia suaveolens Bercht. & J. Presl’, Nutrients, 15(13), 2912. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15132912. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
de Oliveira, L.C. et al. (2025) 'Extraction and characterization of N,N-dimethyltryptamine from Mimosa tenuiflora: a multivariate approach', ACS Omega, 10(38), pp. 44475–44488. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
de Souza, N.A.C. et al. (2025) 'Seasonal effect on the chemical composition of Mimosa tenuiflora stem bark', Chemistry & Biodiversity, 22(12), e202502234. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Deja, S. et al. (2014) 'Do differences in chemical composition of stem and cap of Amanita muscaria fruiting bodies correlate with topsoil type?', PLOS ONE, 9(12), e104084. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Delices, M., Muller, J.A.I., Arunachalam, K. et al. (2023) ‘Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell) Brenan: ethnobotanical, phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological aspects’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 300, 115745. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2022.115745. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Der Marderosian, A.H., Kensinger, K.M., Chao, J.M. and Goldstein, F.J. (1970) ‘The use and hallucinatory principles of a psychoactive beverage of the Cashinahua tribe (Amazon basin)’, Drug Dependence, 5, pp. 7–14. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Der Marderosian, A.H., Pinkley, H.V. and Dobbins, M.F. IV (1968) ‘Native use and occurrence of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in the leaves of Banisteriopsis rusbyana’, American Journal of Pharmacy, 140, pp. 137–147. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
di Tomaso, E., Beltramo, M. and Piomelli, D. (1996) ‘Brain cannabinoids in chocolate’, Nature, 382, pp. 677–678. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Dinis-Oliveira, R.J., Pereira, C.L. and da Silva, D.D. (2019) ‘Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic aspects of peyote and mescaline: clinical and forensic repercussions’, Current Molecular Pharmacology, 12(3), pp. 184–194. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Dobkin de Rios, M. (1968) ‘Trichocereus pachanoi: a mescaline cactus used in folk healing in Peru’, Economic Botany, 22(2), pp. 191–194. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860562. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Doesburg-van Kleffens, M., Zimmermann-Klemd, A.M. and Gründemann, C. (2023) ‘An overview on the hallucinogenic peyote and its alkaloid mescaline: the importance of context, ceremony and culture’, Molecules, 28(24), 7942. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28247942. cited in
Lophophora williamsii · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Drevets, W.C. and Furey, M.L. (2010) ‘Replication of scopolamine’s antidepressant efficacy in major depressive disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial’, Biological Psychiatry, 67(5), pp. 432–438. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.11.021. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Duarte-Filho, L.A.M.S. et al. (2022) 'β-carboline-independent antidepressant-like effect of the standardized extract of the barks of Mimosa tenuiflora… via 5-HT₂A/2C receptors in mice', Journal of Psychopharmacology, 36(7), pp. 836–848. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Dushkov, A. et al. (2023) 'Analysis of the ibotenic acid, muscimol, and ergosterol content of an Amanita muscaria hydroalcoholic extract with an evaluation of its cytotoxic effect against a panel of lung cell lines in vitro', Molecules, 28(19), 6824. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Egger, K. et al. (2024) ‘Neurobiological research on N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and its potentiation by monoamine oxidase inhibition: from ayahuasca to synthetic combinations of DMT and MAO inhibitors’, Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 81, 395. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Escandón-Rivera, S., Pérez-Vásquez, A., Navarrete, A., Hernández, M., Linares, E., Bye, R. and Mata, R. (2017) ‘Anti-hyperglycemic activity of major compounds from Calea ternifolia’, Molecules, 22(2), 289. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22020289. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Farrow, S.C. et al. (2018) ‘Cytochrome P450 and O-methyltransferase catalyze the final steps in the biosynthesis of the anti-addictive alkaloid ibogaine from Tabernanthe iboga’, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 293(36), pp. 13821–13833. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.RA118.004060. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Farrow, S.C. et al. (2019) ‘Biosynthesis of an anti-addiction agent from the iboga plant’, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 141(33), pp. 12979–12983. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.9b05999. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Field, E. (1921) ‘Mitragynine and mitraversine, two new alkaloids from species of Mitragyna’, Journal of the Chemical Society, Transactions, 119, pp. 887–891. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Flieger, M., Stodůlková, E., Wyka, S.A. and Kolařík, M. (2019) ‘Ergochromes: heretofore neglected side of ergot toxicity’, Toxins, 11(8), 439. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11080439. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Florea, S., Panaccione, D.G. and Schardl, C.L. (2017) ‘Ergot alkaloids of the family Clavicipitaceae’, Phytopathology, 107(5), pp. 504–518. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1094/PHYTO-12-16-0435-RVW. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Flores-Bocanegra, L., Raja, H.A., Graf, T.N. et al. (2020) ‘The chemistry of kratom [Mitragyna speciosa]: updated characterization data and methods to elucidate indole and oxindole alkaloids’, Journal of Natural Products, 83(7), pp. 2165–2177. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00257. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Franco, R., Oñatibia-Astibia, A. and Martínez-Pinilla, E. (2013) ‘Health benefits of methylxanthines in cacao and chocolate’, Nutrients, 5(10), pp. 4159–4173. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Garcia, M.R., Ferreres, F., Mineiro, T. et al. (2025) ‘Mexican calea (Calea zacatechichi Schltdl.) interferes with cholinergic and dopaminergic pathways and causes neuroglial toxicity’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 337(3), 118915. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2024.118915. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Gaujac, A., Dempster, N., Navickiene, S., Brandt, S.D. and de Andrade, J.B. (2012) ‘Determination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in Mimosa tenuiflora inner barks by matrix solid-phase dispersion procedure and GC–MS’, Journal of Chromatography B, 881–882, pp. 107–110. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.11.014. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora · Ayahuasca Analogues
Gaur, P., Engel, L., Hall, D.R., Khoo, C., Sarris, J., Perkins, D., Li, C.G. and Low, M. (2025) ‘A UHPLC-(ESI)MS/MS method for the determination of the psychedelic secondary metabolite mescaline in San Pedro (Trichocereus spp.) and its applicability for screening mescaline in other cacti varieties’, Forensic Chemistry, 44, 100659. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forc.2025.100659. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Gill, P.A., Kaur, R., Ball, A.S., Wild, S. and Cavanagh, J-A.E. (2020) ‘Seasonal variation of alkaloids in Phalaris aquatica’, Crop and Pasture Science, 71(3), pp. 311–317. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1071/CP19293. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
González-Yáñez, L., Rivas-Morales, C., Oranday-Cárdenas, M.A. et al. (2019) ‘Safety of aqueous extract of Calea ternifolia used in Mexican traditional medicine’, Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2019, 7478152. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/7478152. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Gotvaldová, K. et al. (2021) ‘Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis’, Drug Testing and Analysis, 13(2), pp. 439–446. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.2950. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Gratton, G. et al. (2020) ‘Dietary flavanols improve cerebral cortical oxygenation and cognition in healthy adults’, Scientific Reports, 10, 19409. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Havel, V., Kruegel, A.C., Bechand, B. et al. (2024) ‘Oxa-iboga alkaloids lack cardiac risk and disrupt opioid use in animal models’, Nature Communications, 15, 8118. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51856-y. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Hazel, C.M. and Panaccione, D.G. (2025) ‘A new species of Periglandula symbiotic with the morning glory Ipomoea tricolor’, Mycologia, 117(4), pp. 602–614. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.2025.2483634. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Heffter, A. (1898) ‘Über Pellote’, Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 40, pp. 385–429. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Herraiz, T. (2000) ‘Tetrahydro-β-carbolines, potential neuroactive alkaloids, in chocolate and cocoa’, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48(10), pp. 4900–4904. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Herraiz, T. and Chaparro, C. (2005) ‘Human monoamine oxidase is inhibited by tobacco smoke: β-carboline alkaloids act as potent and reversible inhibitors’, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 326(2), pp. 378–386. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.11.033. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Herz, W. and Kumar, N. (1980) ‘Sesquiterpene lactones of Calea zacatechichi and C. urticifolia’, Phytochemistry, 19(4), pp. 593–597. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(80)87022-1. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Hicks, C. et al. (2021) ‘Evolution of the ergot alkaloid biosynthetic gene cluster results in divergent mycotoxin profiles in Claviceps purpurea sclerotia’, Toxins, 13(12), 861. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13120861. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Hofmann, A. (1963) ‘The active principles of the seeds of Rivea corymbosa and Ipomoea violacea’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 20, pp. 194–212. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Hofmann, A. and Tscherter, H. (1960) ‘Isolation of lysergic acid alkaloids from the Mexican drug ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa (L.) Hall. f.)’, Experientia, 16, p. 414. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02178840. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Hofmann, A. and Tscherter, H. (1960) ‘Isolierung von Lysergsäure-Alkaloiden aus der mexikanischen Zauberdroge Ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa (L.) Hall. f.)’, Experientia, 16, p. 414. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02178840. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Hofmann, A. et al. (1958) ‘Psilocybin und Psilocin, zwei psychotrope Wirkstoffe aus mexikanischen Rauschpilzen’, Helvetica Chimica Acta, 41(5), pp. 1557–1572. cited in
Psilocybe cubensis
Holmstedt, B., Lindgren, J.-E., Rivier, L. and Plowman, T. (1979) ‘Cocaine in blood of coca chewers’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1(1), pp. 69–78. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(79)90017-5. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Isbell, H. and Gorodetzky, C.W. (1965) ‘Effect of alkaloids of ololiuqui in man’, Psychopharmacologia, 8, pp. 331–339. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00453511. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Iyer, R.N., Favela, D., Zhang, G. and Olson, D.E. (2021) ‘The iboga enigma: the chemistry and neuropharmacology of iboga alkaloids and related analogs’, Natural Product Reports, 38(2), pp. 307–329. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1039/D0NP00033G. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Iyer, R.N., Zhou, X., Akins, N.S. et al. (2025) ‘Efficient and modular synthesis of ibogaine and related alkaloids’, Nature Chemistry, 17, pp. 412–420. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-024-01714-7. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Janiger, O. and Dobkin de Rios, M. (1976) ‘Nicotiana an hallucinogen?’, Economic Botany, 30, pp. 149–151. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02862960. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Jirschitzka, J., Schmidt, G.W., Reichelt, M., Schneider, B., Gershenzon, J. and D’Auria, J.C. (2012) ‘Plant tropane alkaloid biosynthesis evolved independently in the Solanaceae and Erythroxylaceae’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(26), pp. 10304–10309. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200473109. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Johnston, G.A.R. (2014) 'Muscimol as an ionotropic GABA receptor agonist', Neurochemical Research, 39(10), pp. 1942–1947. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Judelson, D.A. et al. (2013) ‘Effects of theobromine and caffeine on mood and vigilance’, Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 33(4), pp. 499–506. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Kaasik, H. et al. (2021) ‘Chemical composition of traditional and analog ayahuasca’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 53(1), pp. 65–75. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Kamble, S.H., Sharma, A., King, T.I. et al. (2019) ‘Metabolite profiling and identification of enzymes responsible for the metabolism of mitragynine, the major alkaloid of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom)’, Xenobiotica, 49(11), pp. 1279–1288. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00498254.2018.1554019. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Karunakaran, T., Ngew, K.Z., Zailan, A.A.D. et al. (2022) ‘The chemical and pharmacological properties of mitragynine and its diastereomers: an insight review’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 13, 805986. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.805986. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Klein, M.T. et al. (2015) ‘Mescaline concentrations in three principal tissues of Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae): implications for sustainable harvesting practices’, Haseltonia, 20, pp. 34–42. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Koenig, X. and Hilber, K. (2015) ‘The anti-addiction drug ibogaine and the heart: a delicate relation’, Molecules, 20(2), pp. 2208–2228. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules20022208. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Kohnen-Johannsen, K.L. and Kayser, O. (2019) ‘Tropane alkaloids: chemistry, pharmacology, biosynthesis and production’, Molecules, 24(4), 796. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24040796. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Kruegel, A.C. and Grundmann, O. (2018) ‘The medicinal chemistry and neuropharmacology of kratom: a preliminary discussion of a promising medicinal plant and analysis of its potential for abuse’, Neuropharmacology, 134, pp. 108–120. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.08.026. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Kruegel, A.C., Gassaway, M.M., Kapoor, A. et al. (2016) ‘Synthetic and receptor signaling explorations of the Mitragyna alkaloids: mitragynine as an atypical molecular framework for opioid receptor modulators’, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 138(21), pp. 6754–6764. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.6b00360. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Kruegel, A.C., Uprety, R., Grinnell, S.G. et al. (2019) ‘7-Hydroxymitragynine is an active metabolite of mitragynine and a key mediator of its analgesic effects’, ACS Central Science, 5(6), pp. 992–1001. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.9b00141. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Lee, I.-Y., Fronczek, F.R., Malcolm, A., Fischer, N.H. and Urbatsch, L.E. (1982b) ‘New germacranolides from Calea ternifolia and the molecular structure of 9α-hydroxy-11,13-dihydro-11α,13-epoxyatripliciolide-8β-O-(2-methylacrylate)’, Journal of Natural Products, 45(3), pp. 311–316. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/np50021a012. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Lee, I.-Y., Olivier, E.J., Urbatsch, L.E. and Fischer, N.H. (1982a) ‘Two sesquiterpene lactones of Calea ternifolia var. calyculata’, Phytochemistry, 21(9), pp. 2313–2316. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(82)85197-2. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
León, F., Obeng, S., Mottinelli, M. et al. (2021) ‘Activity of Mitragyna speciosa (“kratom”) alkaloids at serotonin receptors’, Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 64(18), pp. 13510–13523. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00726. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Li, S.-J. et al. (2025) ‘Structural pharmacology of bufotenine derivatives in activating the 5-HT1A receptor for therapeutic potential in depression and anxiety’, Research, 8, 0987. Available at: https://doi.org/10.34133/research.0987. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina
Lin, J., Yang, S., Ji, J., Chen, H., Xiang, P. and Wu, L. (2023) ‘Natural or artificial: an example of topographic spatial distribution analysis of mescaline in cactus plants by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging’, Frontiers in Plant Science, 14, 1066595. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1066595. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Mack, J.P., Mulvena, D.P. and Slaytor, M. (1988) ‘N,N-Dimethyltryptamine production in Phalaris aquatica seedlings: a mathematical model for its regulation’, Plant Physiology, 88(2), pp. 315–320. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.88.2.315. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
MacRae, W.D. and Towers, G.H.N. (1984a) 'Justicia pectoralis: a study of the basis for its use as a hallucinogenic snuff ingredient', Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 12(1), pp. 93–111. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
MacRae, W.D. and Towers, G.H.N. (1984b) 'An ethnopharmacological examination of Virola elongata bark: a South American arrow poison', Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 12(1), pp. 75–92. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Mahmoudian, M., Jalilpour, H. and Salehian, P. (2002) ‘Toxicity of Peganum harmala: review and a case report’, Iranian Journal of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 1, pp. 1–4. cited in
Peganum harmala
Martínez-Pinilla, E. et al. (2015) ‘The relevance of theobromine for the beneficial effects of cocoa consumption’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 6, 30. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Matos, T.S. et al. (2025) ‘Influence of environmental conditions and seasonality on the metabolome and lipidome of Psychotria viridis leaves’, The Plant Journal, 123(2), e70353. cited in
Psychotria viridis
McBride, M.C. (2000) ‘Bufotenine: toward an understanding of possible psychoactive mechanisms’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 32(3), pp. 321–331. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2000.10400456. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina
McKenna, D.J., Towers, G.H.N. and Abbott, F. (1984) ‘Tryptamine and β-carboline constituents of ayahuasca’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 10(2), pp. 195–223. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
McLeod, W.R. and Sitaram, B.R. (1985) ‘Bufotenine reconsidered’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 72(5), pp. 447–450. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1985.tb02638.x. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina
Michelot, D. and Melendez-Howell, L.M. (2003) ‘Amanita muscaria: chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology’, Mycological Research, 107(2), pp. 131–146. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0953756203007305. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Michener, W. and Rozin, P. (1994) ‘Pharmacological versus sensory factors in the satiation of chocolate craving’, Physiology & Behavior, 56(3), pp. 419–422. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Moloudizargari, M., Mikaili, P., Aghajanshakeri, S., Asghari, M.H. and Shayegh, J. (2013) ‘Pharmacological and therapeutic effects of Peganum harmala and its main alkaloids’, Pharmacognosy Reviews, 7(14), pp. 199–212. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.120524. cited in
Peganum harmala · Ayahuasca Analogues
Mossoba, M.E., Flynn, T.J., Vohra, S., Wiesenfeld, P. and Sprando, R.L. (2016) ‘Evaluation of “dream herb,” Calea zacatechichi, for nephrotoxicity using human kidney proximal tubule cells’, Journal of Toxicology, 2016, 9794570. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/9794570. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Mota, G.S., Sartori, C.J., Miranda, I., Quilhó, T., Mori, F.A. and Pereira, H. (2017) ‘Bark anatomy, chemical composition and ethanol-water extract composition of Anadenanthera peregrina and Anadenanthera colubrina’, PLoS ONE, 12(12), e0189263. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189263. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina
Nathanson, J.A., Hunnicutt, E.J., Kantham, L. and Scavone, C. (1993) ‘Cocaine as a naturally occurring insecticide’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 90(20), pp. 9645–9648. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.90.20.9645. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
National Center for Biotechnology Information (2026) ‘PubChem Compound Summary for CID 4076, Mescaline’. Available at: pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (Accessed: 6 August 2026). cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Nehlig, A. (2013) ‘The neuroprotective effects of cocoa flavanol and its influence on cognitive performance’, British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 75(3), pp. 716–727. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Obeng, S., Kamble, S.H., Reeves, M.E. et al. (2020) ‘Investigation of the adrenergic and opioid binding affinities, metabolic stability, plasma protein binding properties, and functional effects of selected indole-based kratom alkaloids’, Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 63(1), pp. 433–439. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b01583. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Ogunbodede, O., McCombs, D., Trout, K., Daley, P. and Terry, M. (2010) ‘New mescaline concentrations from 14 taxa/cultivars of Echinopsis spp. (Cactaceae) (“San Pedro”) and their relevance to shamanic practice’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 131(2), pp. 356–362. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.021. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Olaranont, Y., Stewart, A.B., Songnuan, W. and Traiperm, P. (2022) ‘How and where Periglandula fungus interacts with different parts of Ipomoea asarifolia’, Journal of Fungi, 8(8), 823. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8080823. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Olaranont, Y., Stewart, A.B., Songnuan, W. and Traiperm, P. (2025) ‘Analysis of ergot alkaloid gene expression and ergine levels in different parts of Ipomoea asarifolia’, PeerJ, 13, e19692. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.19692. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Ortega, A., Blount, J.F. and Manchand, P.S. (1982) ‘Salvinorin, a new trans-neoclerodane diterpene from Salvia divinorum’, Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1, pp. 2505–2508. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1039/P19820002505. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Ott, J. (1999) ‘Pharmahuasca: human pharmacology of oral DMT plus harmine’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 31(2), pp. 171–177. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1999.10471741. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Parker, A.G., Peraza, G.G., Sena, J., Silva, E.S., Soares, M.C.F., Vaz, M.R.C., Furlong, E.B. and Muccillo-Baisch, A.L. (2007) ‘Antinociceptive effects of the aqueous extract of Brugmansia suaveolens flowers in mice’, Biological Research for Nursing, 8(3), pp. 234–239. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1099800406293984. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Paulke, A., Kremer, C., Wunder, C., Achenbach, J., Djahanschiri, B. and Elias, A. (2013) ‘Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.): receptor profiling of lysergic acid amide and other potential psychedelic LSD-like compounds by computational and binding assay approaches’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 148(2), pp. 492–497. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.04.044. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Petricevich, V.L., Salinas-Sánchez, D.O., Avilés-Montes, D., Sotelo-Leyva, C. and Abarca-Vargas, R. (2020) ‘Chemical compounds, pharmacological and toxicological activity of Brugmansia suaveolens: a review’, Plants, 9(9), 1161. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9091161. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens · Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Popova, V.T., Ivanova, T.A., Stoyanova, A.S., Nikolova, V.V., Docheva, M.H., Hristeva, T.H., Damyanova, S.T. and Nikolov, N.P. (2020) ‘Chemical constituents in leaves and aroma products of Nicotiana rustica L. tobacco’, International Journal of Food Studies, 9, pp. 146–159. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7455/ijfs/9.1.2020.a2. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Pundir, S., Shukla, M.K., Singh, A., Chauhan, R., Lal, U.R., Ali, A. and Kumar, D. (2022) ‘A comprehensive review on angel’s trumpet (Brugmansia suaveolens)’, South African Journal of Botany, 151, pp. 266–274. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.02.023. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Ramawad, H.A. et al. (2023) 'Muscimol as a treatment for nerve injury-related neuropathic pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies', Korean Journal of Pain, 36(4), pp. 420–432. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Ramos, K.A. et al. (2024) ‘Immunomodulatory effects of Anadenanthera colubrina bark extract in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis’, Current Issues in Molecular Biology, 46(8), pp. 8726–8740. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb46080515. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Rivier, L. (1981) ‘Analysis of alkaloids in leaves of cultivated Erythroxylum and characterization of alkaline substances used during coca chewing’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 3(2–3), pp. 313–335. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(81)90061-1. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Rivier, L. and Lindgren, J.-E. (1972) ‘“Ayahuasca,” the South American hallucinogenic drink: an ethnobotanical and chemical investigation’, Economic Botany, 26(2), pp. 101–129. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860772. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex
Rodríguez, C., Rollano-Peñaloza, O.M., Delporte, C. and Cassels, B.K. (2022) ‘Ayahuasca preparations: chemical composition and variability’, ACS Omega, 7(14), pp. 12307–12317. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c00795. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Rodríguez, L., García-Rodríguez, O., Llorente-Berzal, Á. et al. (2022) ‘New insights into the chemical composition of ayahuasca’, ACS Omega, 7(15), pp. 12346–12354. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c00795. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Rojas, S., Madriñán, S., Stahl, M. and Harter, K. (2023) ‘Cultural use of tropane alkaloids of Brugmansia species and cultivars in Colombia depends on local plant growth environment rather than genetic diversity’, bioRxiv, 2023.11.02.565279. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.11.02.565279. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Roth, B.L. et al. (2002) ‘Salvinorin A: a potent naturally occurring nonnitrogenous κ opioid selective agonist’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(18), pp. 11934–11939. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.182234399. cited in
Salvia divinorum · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Rucker, J.J. et al. (2024) 'Phase 1, placebo-controlled, single ascending dose trial to evaluate the safety, pharmacokinetics and effect on altered states of consciousness of intranasal BPL-003 (5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine benzoate) in healthy participants', Journal of Psychopharmacology, 38(8), pp. 712–723. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811241246857. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Sałaga, M., Kowalczuk, A., Zielinska, M. et al. (2015) ‘Calea zacatechichi dichloromethane extract exhibits antidiarrheal and antinociceptive effects in mouse models mimicking irritable bowel syndrome’, Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology, 388, pp. 1069–1077. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-015-1142-1. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Schiff, P.L. Jr (2006) ‘Ergot and its alkaloids’, American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 70(5), 98. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5688/aj700598. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Schultes, R.E., Holmstedt, B., Lindgren, J.-E. and Rivier, L. (1977) ‘De Plantis Toxicariis e Mundo Novo Tropicale Commentationes XVIII: phytochemical examination of Spruce’s ethnobotanical collection of Anadenanthera peregrina’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 25(8), pp. 273–287. Available at: JSTOR record. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Siebert, D.J. (1994) ‘Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A: new pharmacologic findings’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 43(1), pp. 53–56. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(94)90116-3. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Silva, E.O. et al. (2024) 'Phytopharmacological aspects of Mimosa tenuiflora: a systematic review of preclinical data', Phytochemistry Reviews, 23, pp. 1183–1203. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Soares, D.B.S. et al. (2017) ‘Psychotria viridis: chemical constituents from leaves and biological properties’, Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 89(2), pp. 927–938. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Späth, E. (1919) ‘Über die Anhalonium-Alkaloide. I. Anhalin und Mezcalin’, Monatshefte für Chemie, 40, pp. 129–154. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Stanfill, S.B., da Silva, A.L.O., Lisko, J.G., Lawler, T.S., Kuklenyik, P., Tyx, R.E., Peuchen, E.H., Richter, P. and Watson, C.H. (2015) ‘Comprehensive chemical characterization of rapé tobacco products: nicotine, un-ionized nicotine, tobacco-specific N′-nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and flavor constituents’, Food and Chemical Toxicology, 82, pp. 50–58. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2015.04.016. cited in
Nicotiana rustica · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Steiner, U. and Leistner, E. (2012) ‘Ergoline alkaloids in convolvulaceous host plants originate from epibiotic clavicipitaceous fungi of the genus Periglandula’, Fungal Ecology, 5(3), pp. 316–321. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funeco.2011.04.004. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Steiner, U. and Leistner, E. (2018) ‘Ergot alkaloids and their hallucinogenic potential in morning glories’, Planta Medica, 84(11), pp. 751–758. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0577-8049. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Steiner, U., Leibner, S., Schardl, C.L., Leuchtmann, A. and Leistner, E. (2011) ‘Periglandula, a new fungal genus within the Clavicipitaceae and its association with Convolvulaceae’, Mycologia, 103(5), pp. 1133–1145. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3852/11-031. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Stromberg, V.L. (1954) ‘The isolation of bufotenine from Piptadenia peregrina’, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 76(6), p. 1707. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01635a082. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Timmermann, C. et al. (2025) 'Exploring 5-MeO-DMT as a pharmacological model for deconstructed consciousness', Neuroscience of Consciousness, 2025(1), niaf007. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/nc/niaf007. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Tsunoda, K., Inoue, N., Aoyagi, Y. and Sugahara, T. (1993a) 'Changes in concentration of ibotenic acid and muscimol in the fruit body of Amanita muscaria during the reproduction stage', Food Hygiene and Safety Science, 34(1), pp. 18–24. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Tsunoda, K., Inoue, N., Aoyagi, Y. and Sugahara, T. (1993b) 'Change in ibotenic acid and muscimol contents in Amanita muscaria during drying, storing or cooking', Food Hygiene and Safety Science, 34(2), pp. 153–160. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Valdés, L.J. III, Butler, W.M., Hatfield, G.M., Paul, A.G. and Koreeda, M. (1984) ‘Divinorin A, a psychotropic terpenoid, and divinorin B from the hallucinogenic Mexican mint Salvia divinorum’, Journal of Organic Chemistry, 49(24), pp. 4716–4720. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/jo00198a026. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Váradi, A., Marrone, G.F., Palmer, T.C. et al. (2016) ‘Mitragynine/corynantheidine pseudoindoxyls as opioid analgesics with mu agonism and delta antagonism, which do not recruit β-arrestin-2’, Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 59(18), pp. 8381–8397. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b00748. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Venegas-Flores, H., Segura-Cobos, D. and Vázquez-Cruz, B. (2002) ‘Antiinflammatory activity of the aqueous extract of Calea zacatechichi’, Proceedings of the Western Pharmacology Society, 45, pp. 110–111. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Vepsäläinen, J.J. et al. (2005) 'Isolation and characterization of yuremamine, a new phytoindole', Planta Medica, 71(11), pp. 1053–1057. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Vigerelli, H. et al. (2018) ‘Biological effects and biodistribution of bufotenine on mice’, BioMed Research International, 2018, 1032638. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1032638. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina
Vigerelli, H., Sciani, J.M., Jared, C., Antoniazzi, M.M., Caporale, G.M., da Silva, A.C.R. and Pimenta, D.C. (2014) ‘Bufotenine is able to block rabies virus infection in BHK-21 cells’, Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases, 20, 45. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/1678-9199-20-45. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Wagner, A., Pehar, M., Yan, Z. and Kulka, M. (2023) 'Amanita muscaria extract potentiates production of proinflammatory cytokines by dsRNA-activated human microglia', Frontiers in Pharmacology, 14, 1102465. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Wallach, J. et al. (2023) ‘Identification of 5-HT2A receptor signaling pathways associated with psychedelic potential’, Nature Communications, 14, 8221. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44016-1. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina
Wasko, M.J., Witt-Enderby, P.A. and Surratt, C.K. (2018) ‘DARK classics in chemical neuroscience: ibogaine’, ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 9(10), pp. 2475–2483. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00294. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Watkins, J.L. et al. (2023) ‘Elucidation of the mescaline biosynthetic pathway in peyote (Lophophora williamsii)’, The Plant Journal, 116(3), pp. 635–649. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Weil, A.T. (1981) ‘The therapeutic value of coca in contemporary medicine’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 3(2–3), pp. 367–376. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(81)90064-7. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Winzer, T. et al. (2015) ‘Morphinan biosynthesis in opium poppy requires a P450-oxidoreductase fusion protein’, Science, 349(6245), pp. 309–312. cited in
Papaver somniferum
Wittenberg, R.E., Wolfman, S.L., De Biasi, M. and Dani, J.A. (2020) ‘Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and nicotine addiction: a brief introduction’, Neuropharmacology, 177, 108256. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108256. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Wu, H., Fronczek, F.R., Burandt, C.L. and Zjawiony, J.K. (2011) ‘Antileishmanial germacranolides from Calea zacatechichi’, Planta Medica, 77(7), pp. 749–753. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0030-1250584. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Zürrer, W.E. et al. (2025) ‘Therapeutic potential of salvinorin A: a systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies’, Translational Psychiatry, 15, 397. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-025-03638-3. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Clinical research & neuroscience
05 · 50 sources
Albaugh, B.J. and Anderson, P.O. (1974) ‘Peyote in the treatment of alcoholism among American Indians’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 131(11), pp. 1247–1250. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Andión, Ó. et al. (2025) ‘Adverse mental health outcomes associated with ayahuasca use in naturalistic settings: results from the Global Ayahuasca Survey’, PLOS Mental Health, 2, e0000097. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Berman, R.M., Cappiello, A., Anand, A. et al. (2000) ‘Antidepressant effects of ketamine in depressed patients’, Biological Psychiatry, 47(4), pp. 351–354. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00230-9. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Bianco, L.S. et al. (2026) ‘Anti-inflammatory effects of Banisteriopsis caapi and β-carbolines in a neuronal cell model’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 16, 1703727. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Brennan, W., Belser, A.B., Swift, T.C. et al. (2022) ‘Development of EMBARK: a transdiagnostic, trans-drug model for the provision of psychological support for psychedelic therapy’, Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 866018. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866018. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Brown, T.K. and Alper, K. (2018) ‘Treatment of opioid use disorder with ibogaine: detoxification and drug use outcomes’, The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 44(1), pp. 24–36. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2017.1320802. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Carhart-Harris, R., Giribaldi, B., Watts, R. et al. (2021) ‘Trial of psilocybin versus escitalopram for depression’, New England Journal of Medicine, 384, pp. 1402–1411. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2032994. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Cavallaro, N. et al. (2026) ‘Mescaline alters cerebellar function, global connectivity, and frequency-selective acoustic gating: a BOLD fMRI study in awake rats’, Neuroscience Bulletin. Advance online publication. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12264-026-01632-3. cited in
Lophophora williamsii · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Cherian, K.N., Kulas, J.A., Evans, L.K. et al. (2024) ‘Magnesium–ibogaine therapy in veterans with traumatic brain injuries’, Nature Medicine, 30, pp. 373–381. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02705-w. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
ClinicalTrials.gov (2026) ‘A study of oral ibogaine in opioid withdrawal’, NCT05029401. Available at: clinicaltrials.gov (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
COMPASS Pathways (2026a) ‘COMPASS Pathways successfully achieves primary endpoint in second Phase 3 trial evaluating COMP360 psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression’, 17 February. Available at: COMPASS investor relations (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
COMPASS Pathways (2026b) ‘Six-month data from second Phase 3 trial confirming rapid and durable profile’, 7 July. Available at: COMPASS investor relations (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Davis, A.K., Barrett, F.S., May, D.G. et al. (2021) ‘Effects of psilocybin-assisted therapy on major depressive disorder: a randomized clinical trial’, JAMA Psychiatry, 78(5), pp. 481–489. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.3285. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Dore, J., Turnipseed, B., Dwyer, S. et al. (2019) ‘Ketamine assisted psychotherapy (KAP): patient demographics, clinical data and outcomes in three large practices administering ketamine with psychotherapy’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 51(2), pp. 189–198. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2019.1587556. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Doss, M.K. et al. (2020) ‘The acute effects of the atypical dissociative hallucinogen salvinorin A on functional connectivity in the human brain’, Scientific Reports, 10, 16392. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73216-8. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Drożdż, S.J., Goel, A., McGarr, M.W. et al. (2022) ‘Ketamine assisted psychotherapy: a systematic narrative review of the literature’, Journal of Pain Research, 15, pp. 1691–1706. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S360733. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Erritzoe, D. et al. (2026) ‘A short-acting psychedelic intervention for major depressive disorder: a phase IIa randomized placebo-controlled trial’, Nature Medicine, 32. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis
Esperança, M.P., Ataíde, A., Vieira-Coelho, M.A. and Borges, J.P. (2026) ‘Ibogaine: therapeutic potential, cardiac safety, and clinical considerations in substance use disorder treatment’, Molecules, 31(3), 545. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31030545. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Ford, S.A., Ness, R.W., Kwon, M., Ro, D.-K. and Phillips, M.A. (2024) ‘A chromosome level reference genome of diviner’s sage (Salvia divinorum) provides insight into salvinorin A biosynthesis’, BMC Plant Biology, 24, 914. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-05633-0. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Girn, M., Doss, M.K., Roseman, L. et al. (2026) ‘An international mega-analysis of psychedelic drug effects on brain circuit function’, Nature Medicine, 32. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-026-04287-9. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Glue, P. et al. (2016) ‘Ascending single-dose, double-blind, placebo-controlled safety study of noribogaine in opioid-dependent patients’, Clinical Pharmacology in Drug Development, 5(6), pp. 460–468. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/cpdd.254. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Goodwin, G.M., Aaronson, S.T., Alvarez, O. et al. (2022) ‘Single-dose psilocybin for a treatment-resistant episode of major depression’, New England Journal of Medicine, 387, pp. 1637–1648. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2206443. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Griffiths, R.R., Richards, W.A., McCann, U. and Jesse, R. (2006) ‘Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance’, Psychopharmacology, 187, pp. 268–283. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Halpern, J.H. et al. (2005) ‘Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among Native Americans’, Biological Psychiatry, 58(8), pp. 624–631. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Knuijver, T. et al. (2024) ‘The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ibogaine in opioid use disorder patients’, Journal of Psychopharmacology, 38(5), pp. 481–488. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811241237873. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Knuijver, T., Schellekens, A.F.A., Belgers, M. et al. (2022) ‘Safety of ibogaine administration in detoxification of opioid-dependent individuals: a descriptive open-label observational study’, Addiction, 117(1), pp. 118–128. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/add.15448. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Kolp, E., Friedman, H.L., Krupitsky, E., Jansen, K., Sylvester, M., Young, M.S. and Kolp, A. (2014) ‘Ketamine psychedelic psychotherapy: focus on its pharmacology, phenomenology, and clinical applications’, International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 33(2), pp. 84–140. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2014.33.2.84. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Krupitsky, E., Burakov, A., Romanova, T. et al. (2007) ‘Single versus repeated sessions of ketamine-assisted psychotherapy for people with heroin dependence’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 39(1), pp. 13–19. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2007.10399860. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Krupitsky, E.M. and Grinenko, A.Y. (1997) ‘Ketamine psychedelic therapy (KPT): a review of the results of ten years of research’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 29(2), pp. 165–183. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1997.10400185. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Krystal, J.H., Abdallah, C.G., Sanacora, G. et al. (2023) ‘Ketamine: a paradigm shift for depression research and treatment’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(49), e2305772120. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2305772120. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Li, H., Sun, Y., Xu, W., Sun, B., Wu, S., Li, C., Zhao, J., Martin, C. and Tatsis, E.C. (2026) ‘Comparative genome analysis provides a foundation for defining salvinorin A biosynthesis in Salvia divinorum’, Nature Communications, 17, 3414. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-70885-3. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Lissemore, J.I., Cao, S., Kulas, J.A. et al. (2025) ‘Magnesium–ibogaine therapy effects on cortical oscillations and neural complexity in veterans with traumatic brain injury’, Nature Mental Health, 3, pp. 918–931. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-025-00463-x. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Ly, C. et al. (2018) ‘Psychedelics promote structural and functional neural plasticity’, Cell Reports, 23(11), pp. 3170–3182. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis
Mash, D.C., Duque, L., Page, B. and Allen-Ferdinand, K. (2018) ‘Ibogaine detoxification transitions opioid and cocaine abusers between dependence and abstinence: clinical observations and treatment outcomes’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 9, 529. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.00529. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Mitchell, J.M., Bogenschutz, M., Lilienstein, A. et al. (2021) ‘MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 3 study’, Nature Medicine, 27, pp. 1025–1033. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01336-3. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Mitchell, J.M., Ot’alora, G.M., van der Kolk, B. et al. (2023) ‘MDMA-assisted therapy for moderate to severe PTSD: a randomized, placebo-controlled Phase 3 trial’, Nature Medicine, 29, pp. 2473–2480. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02565-4. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Mithoefer, M.C. (2017) A Manual for MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Version 8.1. Santa Cruz, CA: MAPS. Available at: MAPS. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Morales-García, J.A. et al. (2017) ‘The alkaloids of Banisteriopsis caapi, the plant source of the Amazonian hallucinogen ayahuasca, stimulate adult neurogenesis in vitro’, Scientific Reports, 7, 5309. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Noller, G.E., Frampton, C.M. and Yazar-Klosinski, B. (2018) ‘Ibogaine treatment outcomes for opioid dependence from a twelve-month follow-up observational study’, The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 44(1), pp. 37–46. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2017.1310218. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Palhano-Fontes, F., Andrade, K.C., Tofoli, L.F., Santos, A.C., Crippa, J.A.S., Hallak, J.E.C., Ribeiro, S. and de Araujo, D.B. (2015) ‘The psychedelic state induced by ayahuasca modulates the activity and connectivity of the default mode network’, PLOS ONE, 10(2), e0118143. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118143. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Ayahuasca Complex
Palhano-Fontes, F., Barreto, D., Onias, H., Andrade, K.C., Novaes, M.M., Pessoa, J.A., Mota-Rolim, S.A., Osório, F.L., Sanches, R., dos Santos, R.G., Tófoli, L.F., de Oliveira Silveira, G., Yonamine, M., Riba, J., Santos, F.R., Silva-Junior, A.A., Alchieri, J.C., Galvão-Coelho, N.L., Lobão-Soares, B., Hallak, J.E.C., Arcoverde, E., Maia-de-Oliveira, J.P. and Araújo, D.B. (2019) ‘Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial’, Psychological Medicine, 49(4), pp. 655–663. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718001356. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Prince, M.A., O’Donnell, M.B., Stanley, L.R. and Swaim, R.C. (2019) ‘Examination of recreational and spiritual peyote use among American Indian youth’, Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 80(3), pp. 366–370. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Serrano-Dueñas, M., Cardozo-Peláez, F. and Sánchez-Ramos, J.R. (2001) ‘Effects of Banisteriopsis caapi extract on Parkinson’s disease’, Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, 5(3), pp. 127–132. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Shattuck, E.C. et al. (2026) ‘Connectedness to nature, ceremonial participation, and mental and physical health among rural and urban Wixárika’, American Journal of Human Biology, 38(6), e70298. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Shaw, J. et al. (2026) ‘The ethnopharmacological use of mescaline for psychiatric disorders: a systematic review’, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 27(7), 3081. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Simpson, R.J., Juruena, M.F. et al. (2026) ‘Effectiveness of ketamine-assisted psychotherapy as a treatment for depression: a systematic review’, Psychopharmacology. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-026-07003-0. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Sridhar, M. et al. (2026) ‘Neural correlates of ibogaine: evidence from functional neuroimaging of military veterans’, Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 11(6), pp. 624–633. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2026.02.001. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Wolfgang, A.S., Fonzo, G.A., Gray, J.C. et al. (2025) ‘MDMA and MDMA-assisted therapy’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 182(1), pp. 79–103. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.20230681. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Zarate, C.A. Jr, Singh, J.B., Carlson, P.J. et al. (2006) ‘A randomized trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(8), pp. 856–864. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.8.856. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Zürrer, W.E. et al. (2025) ‘The translational potential of salvinorin A: systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies’, Translational Psychiatry, 15, 401. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-025-03638-3. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Conservation & ecology
06 · 38 sources
Alzate-Marin, A.L., Rodrigues, P.A.B., Alzate-Martinez, F.A., Machado, G.P., Martinez, C.A. and Bonifácio-Anacleto, F. (2025) ‘Phenology and spatial genetic structure of Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.), a resilient species amid territorial transformation in an urban deciduous forest of southeastern Brazil’, Genes, 16(4), 388. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/genes16040388. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
BGCI and IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group (2019) 'Mimosa tenuiflora', The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019, e.T144287589A148998299. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Bonilla, L. and Nájera, P. (2021) ‘Let’s talk about hikuri: a peyote conservation project by the Wixárika’, Chacruna, 28 January. Available at: chacruna.net (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) and IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group (2019) ‘Anadenanthera peregrina’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T144262459A149021134. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T144262459A149021134.en. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) and IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group (2019b) 'Virola elongata', The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T61903350A145670411. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Canteiro, C. and Lewis, G. (2020) ‘Anadenanthera colubrina’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T62478A170266795. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T62478A170266795.en. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Chellemi, D.O., Webster, C.G., Baker, C.A., Annamalai, M., Achor, D. and Adkins, S. (2011) ‘Widespread occurrence and low genetic diversity of Colombian datura virus in Brugmansia suggest an anthropogenic role in virus selection and spread’, Plant Disease, 95(6), pp. 755–761. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-09-10-0654. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Consejo Regional Wixárika para la Defensa de Wirikuta (2026) ‘Revision of sentence demanded against mining concessions in the sacred place of Wirikuta’, 20 April. Available at: Wixárika Research Center (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (2026) ‘The CITES Appendices’. Available at: cites.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Dunk, C.W., Lebel, T. and Keane, P.J. (2012) 'Characterisation of ectomycorrhizal formation by the exotic fungus Amanita muscaria with Nothofagus cunninghamii in Victoria, Australia', Mycorrhiza, 22(2), pp. 135–147. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (2026) '21 CFR §1308.11: Schedule I'. Available at: eCFR record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina · Echinopsis pachanoi · Erythroxylum coca · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR) (2026) ‘21 CFR Part 1308—Schedules of Controlled Substances’. Available at: ecfr.gov (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens · Ipomoea corymbosa
Giles, P.V., Salgado Salomón, M.E., Pildain, M.B. and Barroetaveña, C. (2025) 'Molecular analysis confirms the invasion of Amanita muscaria in native Nothofagus forests from Patagonia, Argentina', Biological Invasions, 27, article 256. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Gobierno de México (2023) ‘Decreto por el que se reconocen, protegen, preservan y salvaguardan los lugares y sitios sagrados y las rutas de peregrinación de los pueblos indígenas Wixárika, Náayeri, O’dam o Au’dam y Mexikan’, Diario Oficial de la Federación, 9 August. Available at: sidof.segob.gob.mx (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Hay, A. (2014) ‘Brugmansia suaveolens’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T51247699A58913403. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T51247699A58913403.en. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Health Canada (2017) ‘Notice: prescription drug list—multiple additions’. Available at: canada.ca (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Hernández-Duarte, S.A., Oliveros-Garay, O.A., González, A. et al. (2025) ‘Infection by Colombian datura virus induces leaf deformation associated with Indigenous selection of angel’s trumpet (Brugmansia spp.)’, VirusDisease, 36, pp. 506–517. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13337-025-00939-5. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) (2025) Green List: List of Psychotropic Substances under International Control. Vienna: United Nations. Available at: incb.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina · Diplopterys cabrerana
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (2019) ‘Tabernanthe iboga’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at: iucnredlist.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
INTERPOL (2023) Illicit trafficking in iboga and ibogaine. Lyon: International Criminal Police Organization. Available at: ENACT Africa. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) (2021) 'Virola theiodora', The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T194009682A194009684. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Journal officiel de la République Gabonaise (2026) ‘Décret No. 0239/PR/MJSRCAVA du 22/05/2026 réglementant l’accès, l’utilisation, l’exploitation, la recherche, la transformation et la commercialisation de l’Iboga, de ses dérivés et des savoirs traditionnels associés’. Available at: journal-officiel.ga (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Journey Colab Corp. (2022) ‘Mescaline for the treatment of substance use disorders’, International Patent Application WO2022251690A1, published 1 December. Available at: WIPO Patentscope (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Liechti, M.E. et al. (2022) ‘Effects of mescaline and of mescaline analogs (scalines) to assist psychotherapy’, US Patent Application US20220265582A1, published 25 August. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
NatureServe (2026) 'Amanita muscaria', NatureServe Explorer. Global rank G5. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Olson, D.E. et al. (2025) ‘Substituted compounds and uses thereof’, US Patent US12325710B2, granted 10 June. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SEMARNAT) (2010) NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010: Protección ambiental—especies nativas de México de flora y fauna silvestres. Available at: PROFEPA (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Silva, L.A. et al. (2021) 'Genetic diversity in Mimosa tenuiflora: a multipurpose plant genetic resource of semiarid Brazil', Journal of Agricultural Science, 13(5), pp. 113–124. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Stinca, A. (2020) ‘Brugmansia suaveolens (Solanaceae), a neophyte native to South America new to the alien flora of continental Europe’, BioInvasions Records, 9(4), pp. 660–669. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3391/bir.2020.9.4.01. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Terry, M. (2017) ‘Lophophora williamsii’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, e.T151962A121515326. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T151962A121515326.en. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Texas Health and Human Services (2026) ‘Ibogaine clinical trials’. Available at: hhs.texas.gov (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
UK Government (2026) Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, Schedule 2, Part I: Class A Drugs. Available at: legislation.gov.uk (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina · Brugmansia suaveolens
UNESCO (2025b) ‘The Wixárika Route in Mexico joins the UNESCO World Heritage List’, 12 July. Available at: unesco.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Unión Wixárika de Centros Ceremoniales de Jalisco, Durango y Nayarit (2026) ‘Statement regarding the judicial ruling in favor of the sacred site of Wirikuta’, 18 April. Available at: Wixárika Research Center (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
United States Patent and Trademark Office (2004) ‘Brugmansia plant named “Snowbank”’, USPP14817P2. Available at: patents.google.com. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Vargas, N. et al. (2019) 'In Colombia the Eurasian fungus Amanita muscaria is expanding its range into native, tropical Quercus humboldtii forests', Mycologia, 111(5), pp. 758–771. cited in
Amanita muscaria
World Intellectual Property Organization (2020) ‘Scopolamine production’, WO2020097635A1. Available at: patents.google.com. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) (2009) ‘Angico-branco (Piptadenia colubrina) extracts for use in cosmetic or dermatological preparations’, WO2009106934A1. Available at: WIPO record. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina
Ethnography, ritual & cosmology
07 · 222 sources
Aberle, D.F. (1966) The Peyote Religion among the Navaho. Chicago: Aldine. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Allen, C.J. (1981) ‘To be Quechua: the symbolism of coca chewing in highland Peru’, American Ethnologist, 8(1), pp. 157–171. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.1981.8.1.02a00100. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Allen, C.J. (2002) The Hold Life Has: Coca and Cultural Identity in an Andean Community, 2nd edn. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Amin, G. (1991) Popular Medicinal Plants of Iran. Tehran: Iranian Research Institute of Medicinal Plants. cited in
Peganum harmala
Araújo, W.S. (2002) ‘A Barquinha: espaço simbólico de uma cosmologia em construção’, in Labate, B.C. and Araújo, W.S. (eds) O Uso Ritual da Ayahuasca. Campinas: Mercado de Letras, pp. 541–555. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Araújo, W.S. (2008) ‘The Barquinha: symbolic space of a cosmology in the making’, Fieldwork in Religion, 2(3), pp. 350–362. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1558/firn.v2i3.350. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Aterianus-Owanga, A. (2017) ‘Staging ritual music, building a national “heritage”: musicians, dancers and the heritage making of Bwiti in Gabon’, paper presented at the African Studies Association Annual Meeting. Available at: SSRN. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Baer, G. (1992) ‘The one intoxicated by tobacco: Matsigenka shamanism’, in Langdon, E.J.M. and Baer, G. (eds) Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 79–100. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Barnard, G.W. (2014) ‘Entheogens in a religious context: the case of the Santo Daime religious tradition’, Zygon, 49(3), pp. 666–684. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Bastien, J.W. (1987) Healers of the Andes: Kallawaya Herbalists and Their Medicinal Plants. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Belaunde, L.E. (2016) ‘Kené: Shipibo-Konibo design and the aesthetics of Amazonian sociality’, in Santos-Granero, F. (ed.) Images of Public Wealth or the Anatomy of Well-Being in Indigenous Amazonia. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, pp. 190–211. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Bender, D.A., Nayak, S.M., Siegel, J.S. et al. (2025) ‘The role of touch in psychedelic therapy: perspectives from a survey of practitioners in research settings’, American Journal of Psychotherapy, 78(4). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.20240025. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Bennett, B.C. (1992) ‘Hallucinogenic plants of the Shuar and related indigenous groups in Amazonian Ecuador and Peru’, Brittonia, 44(4), pp. 483–493. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2807199. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Bennett, W.C. and Zingg, R.M. (1935) The Tarahumara: An Indian Tribe of Northern Mexico. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Beyer, S.V. (2009) Singing to the Plants: A Guide to Mestizo Shamanism in the Upper Amazon. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Nicotiana rustica · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex
Blosser, B. (1991) ‘Lessons in the use of Mazatec psychoactive plants’, Yearbook for Ethnomedicine and the Study of Consciousness, 1, pp. 189–199. Available at: Salvia divinorum Research and Information Center. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Bogoras, W. (1904–1909) The Chukchee. Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. 7. Leiden and New York: E.J. Brill and American Museum of Natural History. Available at: Internet Archive. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Bonchristiano, P.A. (2025) 'Claudia Andujar and the Yanomami: photography and activism in the changing light of the Amazon forest', Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies, 33(4), pp. 569–595. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13569325.2024.2431005. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Bonfiglioli, C. (2009) ‘Jíkuri sepawa’ame (la “raspa de peyote”): una danza de curación en la Sierra Tarahumara’, Dimensión Antropológica, 45, pp. 73–105. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Bonhomme, J. (2005) Le miroir et le crâne: parcours initiatique du Bwete Misoko (Gabon). Paris: CNRS Éditions. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Bonhomme, J. (2006) Le miroir et le crâne: parcours initiatique du Bwete Misoko (Gabon). Paris: CNRS Éditions. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Bonhomme, J. (2018) ‘Incident surrounding a post: ritual, script and performance in the Bwiti of Gabon’, L’Homme, 227–228, pp. 153–178. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4000/lhomme.32426. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Bonny, H.L. and Pahnke, W.N. (1972) ‘The use of music in psychedelic (LSD) psychotherapy’, Journal of Music Therapy, 9(2), pp. 64–87. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jmt/9.2.64. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Bowden, H. (2010) Mystery Cults in the Ancient World. London: Thames & Hudson. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Brissac, S. (2008) ‘In the light of Hoasca: an approach to the religious experience of participants of the União do Vegetal’, Fieldwork in Religion, 2(3), pp. 319–349. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1558/firn.v2i3.319. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Bristol, M.L. (1966) ‘The psychotropic Banisteriopsis among the Sibundoy of Colombia’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 21, pp. 113–140. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Bristol, M.L. (1969) ‘Tree Datura drugs of the Colombian Sibundoy’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 22(5), pp. 165–227. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5962/p.168369. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Brough, J. (1971) ‘Soma and Amanita muscaria’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 34(2), pp. 331–362. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X0012957X. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Buitrago Escobar, M. and Gaitán Quintero, C. (2016) ‘Knowledge embodiment through dance: a study case among the Colombian Sikuani’, Knowledge Cultures, 4(3), pp. 15–30. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Burkert, W. (1987) Ancient Mystery Cults. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Bussmann, R.W. and Sharon, D. (2006) ‘Traditional medicinal plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture’, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2, 47. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-47. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Calabrese, J.D. (2013) A Different Medicine: Postcolonial Healing in the Native American Church. Oxford: Oxford University Press. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Campbell, L. (1997) American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Candre Kinerai, H. and Echeverri, J.A. (2008) Tabaco frío, coca dulce: palabras del anciano Kinerai de la Tribu Cananguchal para sanar y alegrar el corazón de sus huérfanos. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Capone, S. (2010) Searching for Africa in Brazil: Power and Tradition in Candomblé. Translated by L.L. Grant. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822392040. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Chinchilla Mazariegos, O. (2016) ‘Human sacrifice and divine nourishment in Mesoamerica: the iconography of cacao on the Pacific Coast of Guatemala’, Ancient Mesoamerica, 27(2), pp. 361–375. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Clinton, K. (1974) The Sacred Officials of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Clinton, K. (1992) Myth and Cult: The Iconography of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Stockholm: Swedish Institute at Athens. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Coe, S.D. and Coe, M.D. (2013) The True History of Chocolate. 3rd edn. London: Thames & Hudson. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Dawson, A. (2012) ‘Spirit possession in a new religious context: the Umbandization of Santo Daime’, Nova Religio, 15(4), pp. 60–84. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1525/nr.2012.15.4.60. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Dawson, A. (2013) Santo Daime: A New World Religion. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Available at: Bloomsbury. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
De Feo, V. (2003) ‘Ethnomedical field study in northern Peruvian Andes with particular reference to divination practices’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 85(2–3), pp. 243–256. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00017-5. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
De Feo, V. (2004) ‘The ritual use of Brugmansia species in traditional Andean medicine in northern Peru’, Economic Botany, 58(S1), pp. S221–S229. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001(2004)58[S221:TRUOBS]2.0.CO;2. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens · Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Devlet, E.G. (2001) ‘Rock art and the material culture of Siberian and Central Asian shamanism’, in Price, N.S. (ed.) The Archaeology of Shamanism. London: Routledge, pp. 43–54. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Díaz, J.L. (1979) ‘Ethnopharmacology and taxonomy of Mexican psychodysleptic plants’, Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 11(1–2), pp. 71–101. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1979.10472094. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Díaz, J.L. (2013) ‘Salvia divinorum: a psychopharmacological riddle and a mind-body prospect’, Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 6(1), pp. 43–53. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2174/18744737112059990004. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Dikov, N.N. (1971) Naskal’nye zagadki drevnei Chukotki: Petroglify Pegtymelia [Rock Art Riddles of Ancient Chukotka: The Petroglyphs of Pegtymel]. Moscow: Nauka. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Dobkin de Rios, M. (1969) ‘Folk curing with a psychedelic cactus in the north coast of Peru’, International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 15(1), pp. 23–32. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/002076406901500102. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Dumit, J. and Sanabria, E. (2022) ‘Set, setting, and clinical trials: colonial technologies and psychedelics experiment’, in Bruun, M.H., Wahlberg, A., Douglas-Jones, R., Hasse, C., Hoeyer, K., Kristensen, D.B. and Winthereik, B.R. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of the Anthropology of Technology. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 291–308. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7084-8_15. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Echeverri, J.A. (2015) ‘Cool tobacco breath: the uses and meanings of tobacco among the People of the Centre’, in Russell, A. and Rahman, E. (eds) The Master Plant: Tobacco in Lowland South America. London: Bloomsbury, pp. 107–129. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Engler, S. (2023) ‘Umbanda: hybridity, tradition and semantic plurality’, Interdisciplinary Journal for Religion and Transformation in Contemporary Society, 9(2), pp. 311–334. Available at: Brill. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Estrada, Á. (1981) María Sabina: Her Life and Chants. Translated by H. Munn. Santa Barbara, CA: Ross-Erikson. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Evans, N.A. (2002) ‘Sanctuaries, sacrifices, and the Eleusinian Mysteries’, Numen, 49(3), pp. 227–254. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1163/156852702320263927. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Fagetti, A. (2025) ‘Virgin Seed (Ipomoea corymbosa and Ipomoea tricolor) among Mixtec, Nahuas, and Mazatec of Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Puebla (Mexico)’, in Winkelman, M.J. (ed.) Handbook of Entheogenic Healing. Leiden: Brill, pp. 122–146. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Fagetti, A. and Mercadillo, R.E. (2022) ‘Experiences with sacred mushrooms and psilocybin in dialogue: transdisciplinary interpretations of the “velada”’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 33(2), pp. 385–411. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anoc.12163. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Fatur, K. (2019) ‘Sagas of the Solanaceae: speculative ethnobotanical perspectives on the Norse berserkers’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 244, 112151. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2019.112151. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Feeney, K. (2010) ‘Revisiting Wasson’s Soma: exploring the effects of preparation on the chemistry of Amanita muscaria’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(4), pp. 499–506. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2010.10400712. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Feinberg, B. (1997) ‘Three Mazatec wise ones and their books: local knowledge, intertextuality and cultural authority in the Sierra Mazateca’, Critique of Anthropology, 17(2), pp. 411–437. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0308275X9701700221. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Fernandez, J.W. (1972) ‘Tabernanthe iboga: narcotic ecstasis and the work of the ancestors’, in Furst, P.T. (ed.) Flesh of the Gods. New York: Praeger, pp. 237–260. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Fernandez, J.W. (1982) Bwiti: An Ethnography of the Religious Imagination in Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Available at: JSTOR. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Fernandez, J.W. and Fernandez, R.L. (2001) ‘“Returning to the path”: the use of iboga[ine] in an equatorial African ritual context and the binding of time, space, and social relationships’, The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Biology, 56, pp. 235–247. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0099-9598(01)56017-4. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Fields, F.H. (1969) ‘Rivea corymbosa: notes on some Zapotecan customs’, Economic Botany, 23, pp. 206–209. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860452. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Flecha, A. (2023) ‘Currents of knowledge: the Santo Daime bailado as decolonial dance’, Revista Brasileira de Estudos da Presença, 13(2), e128060. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/2237-2660128060vs02. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Fotiou, E. (2016) ‘The globalization of ayahuasca shamanism and the erasure of Indigenous shamanism’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 27(2), pp. 151–179. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anoc.12056. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Fotiou, E. (2020) ‘Shamanic tourism in the Peruvian lowlands: critical and ethical considerations’, Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, 25(3), pp. 374–396. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/jlca.12508. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Frenopoulo, C. (2004) ‘The mechanics of religious synthesis in the Barquinha religion’, REVER: Revista de Estudos da Religião, 4(1). Available at: PUC-SP (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Frymann, T., Whitney, S., Yaden, D.B. and Lipson, J. (2022) ‘The Psychedelic Integration Scales: tools for measuring psychedelic integration behaviors and experiences’, Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 863247. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.863247. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Furst, P.T. (1972) ‘To find our life: peyote among the Huichol Indians of Mexico’, in Furst, P.T. (ed.) Flesh of the Gods. New York: Praeger, pp. 136–184. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Gagné, R. (2009) ‘Mystery inquisitors: performance, authority, and sacrilege at Eleusis’, Classical Antiquity, 28(2), pp. 211–247. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1525/ca.2009.28.2.211. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Garcia Rodriguez, O.I. (2026) ‘Blood, semen, coca, and tobacco: the transmission of ritual knowledge among the Murui-Muinaɨ Indigenous people of the Amazon’, HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory, 16(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1086/740596. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Gearin, A.K. (2015) ‘An Amazonian shamanic brew in Australia: ayahuasca healing and individualism’, The Australian Journal of Anthropology, 26(2), pp. 186–201. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/taja.12143. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Gearin, A.K. and Calavia Sáez, O. (2021) ‘Altered vision: ayahuasca shamanism and sensory sociality’, Current Anthropology, 62(2), pp. 138–163. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1086/713737. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Geck, M.S., Lecca, D., Marchese, G., Casu, L. and Sanna, G. (2021) ‘Ethnomedicine and neuropsychopharmacology in Mesoamerica’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 278, 114243. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114243. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Glass-Coffin, B. (1998) The Gift of Life: Female Spirituality and Healing in Northern Peru. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Gollnhofer, O. and Sillans, R. (1983) Le Bwiti, société d’initiation chez les Apindji au Gabon. Paris: Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Gómez Rincón, C.M. (2020) ‘The spiritual dimension of yagé shamanism in Colombia’, Religions, 11(7), 375. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Goulart, S.L. (2008) ‘Religious matrices of the União do Vegetal’, Fieldwork in Religion, 2(3), pp. 286–318. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1558/firn.v2i3.286. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Gow, P. (1994) ‘River people: shamanism and history in western Amazonia’, in Thomas, N. and Humphrey, C. (eds.) Shamanism, History and the State. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, pp. 90–113. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex
Groark, K.P. (2010) ‘The angel in the gourd: ritual, therapeutic, and protective uses of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) among the Tzeltal and Tzotzil Maya of Chiapas, Mexico’, Journal of Ethnobiology, 30(1), pp. 5–30. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771-30.1.5. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Groisman, A. (2000) Eu Venho da Floresta: Um Estudo sobre o Contexto Simbólico do Uso do Santo Daime. Florianópolis: Editora da UFSC. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Grünewald, R. de A. and Savoldi, R. (2020) ‘Cada jurema é uma jurema: continuidade, rupturas e inovações em religiosidades no Brasil’, Revista del CESLA, 26, pp. 221–244. Available at: https://doi.org/10.36551/2081-1160.2020.26.221-244. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Grünewald, R. de A., Savoldi, R. and Collins, M.I. (2022) ‘Jurema in contemporary Brazil: ritual re-actualizations, mysticism, consciousness, and healing’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 33(2), pp. 307–332. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anoc.12150. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Grünewald, R.A. (2018) 'Nas trilhas da Jurema', Religião & Sociedade, 38. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Grünewald, R.A., Savoldi, E. and Collins, L. (2022) ‘Juremahuasca: ritual, research and the reinvention of tradition’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 33(1), pp. 100–126. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anoc.12150. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Gukasyan, N. and Nayak, S.M. (2022) ‘Psychedelics, placebo effects, and set and setting: insights from common factors theory of psychotherapy’, Transcultural Psychiatry, 59(5), pp. 652–664. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461520983684. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Harner, M.J. (1972) The Jívaro: People of the Sacred Waterfalls. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Nicotiana rustica · Ayahuasca Complex
Hartogsohn, I. (2017) ‘Constructing drug effects: a history of set and setting’, Drug Science, Policy and Law, 3, pp. 1–17. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/2050324516683325. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Hartogsohn, I. (2021) ‘Set and setting in the Santo Daime’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12, 651037. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.651037. cited in
Psychotria viridis · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Hartogsohn, I. (2022) ‘Virtual Daime: when psychedelic ritual migrates online’, Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 819994. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.819994. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Havelka, O. (2022) ‘The syncretism of the Gabonese Bwiti religion and Catholic Christianity from a theological and theological-ethical perspective’, Acta Universitatis Carolinae Theologica, 12(1), pp. 143–163. Available at: karolinum.cz. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Heim, R. and Wasson, R.G. (1958) Les champignons hallucinogènes du Mexique. Paris: Muséum national d’histoire naturelle. cited in
Psilocybe cubensis
Híbridos (n.d.) ‘A Barquinha’ [documentary ethnography and interview with Mestre Antônio Geraldo da Silva Filho]. Available at: Híbridos (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Hofmann, A. (1971) ‘Teonanácatl and ololiuqui, two ancient magic drugs of Mexico’, Bulletin on Narcotics, 23(1), pp. 3–14. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Hugh-Jones, S. (1979) The Palm and the Pleiades: Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Jauregui, X., Clavo, Z.M., Jovel, E.M. and Pardo-de-Santayana, M. (2011) ‘“Plantas con madre”: plants that teach and guide in the shamanic initiation process in the East-Central Peruvian Amazon’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 134(3), pp. 739–752. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.042. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Jochelson, W. (1905–1908) The Koryak. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, 10; Jesup North Pacific Expedition, 6. Leiden and New York: E.J. Brill and G.E. Stechert. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Jochelson, W. (1908) The Koryak. Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. 6. Leiden and New York: E.J. Brill and American Museum of Natural History. Available at: AMNH Digital Library. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Johnson, J.B. (1939) ‘Elements of Mazatec witchcraft’, Ethnologiska Studier, 9, pp. 128–150. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Johnson, M.W., Richards, W.A. and Griffiths, R.R. (2008) ‘Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety’, Journal of Psychopharmacology, 22(6), pp. 603–620. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881108093587. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Joralemon, D. (1984) ‘The role of hallucinogenic drugs and sensory stimuli in Peruvian ritual healing’, Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 8(4), pp. 399–430. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00114665. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Joralemon, D. (1985) ‘Altar symbolism in Peruvian ritual healing’, Journal of Latin American Lore, 11(1), pp. 3–29. Available at: Library of Congress record. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Joralemon, D. (1986) ‘The performing patient in ritual healing’, Social Science & Medicine, 23(9), pp. 841–845. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(86)90211-X. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Joralemon, D. and Sharon, D. (1993) Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. cited in
Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Kaelen, M., Giribaldi, B., Raine, J. et al. (2018) ‘The hidden therapist: evidence for a central role of music in psychedelic therapy’, Psychopharmacology, 235, pp. 505–519. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-017-4820-5. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Kopenawa, D. and Albert, B. (2013) The Falling Sky: Words of a Yanomami Shaman. Translated by N. Elliott and A. Dundy. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Krasheninnikov, S.P. (1755) Opisanie zemli Kamchatki [Description of the Land of Kamchatka]. St Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Krasheninnikov, S.P. (1764) The History of Kamtschatka, and the Kurilski Islands, with the Countries Adjacent. Translated by J. Grieve. Gloucester: R. Raikes. Available at: Internet Archive. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Kufer, J., Grube, N. and Heinrich, M. (2006) ‘Cacao in eastern Guatemala: a sacred tree with ecological significance’, Environment, Development and Sustainability, 8, pp. 597–608. cited in
Theobroma cacao
La Barre, W. (1938) The Peyote Cult. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 19. New Haven: Yale University Press. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Labate, B.C. (2012) ‘Ayahuasca religions in Acre: cultural heritage in the Brazilian borderlands’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 23(1), pp. 87–102. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-3537.2012.01058.x. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Labate, B.C. and MacRae, E. (eds) (2010) Ayahuasca, Ritual and Religion in Brazil. London: Equinox. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Labate, B.C., Cavnar, C. and Gearin, A.K. (eds.) (2017) The world ayahuasca diaspora: reinventions and controversies. Abingdon: Routledge. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Labate, B.C., Rose, I.S. and Santos, R.G. (2009) Ayahuasca Religions: A Comprehensive Bibliography and Critical Essays. Santa Cruz, CA: Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Labate, B.C., Santos, R.G., Anderson, B.T., Mercante, M.S. and Barbosa, P.C.R. (2012) ‘The treatment and handling of substance dependence with ayahuasca: reflections on current and future research’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 44(3), pp. 229–239. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2012.704590. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Langdon, E.J.M. (1979) ‘Yagé among the Siona: cultural patterns in visions’, in Browman, D.L. and Schwarz, R.A. (eds) Spirits, Shamans, and Stars. The Hague: Mouton, pp. 63–80. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana
Langdon, E.J.M. (1992) ‘Shamans and jaguars: a study of Siona medicine’, in Langdon, E.J.M. and Baer, G. (eds.) Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 41–62. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Langdon, E.J.M. (2016) ‘The revitalization of yajé shamanism among the Siona: strategies of survival in historical context’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 27(2), pp. 180–203. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Langdon, E.J.M. (2017) ‘From rau to sacred plants: transfigurations of shamanic agency among the Siona Indians of Colombia’, Social Compass, 64(3), pp. 343–359. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Langdon, E.J.M. (2017) ‘From the vision to the word: the shamanic performance and its relation to the political’, Social Compass, 64(3), pp. 319–337. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768617713654. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Langdon, E.J.M. and Baer, G. (eds) (1992) Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Leite, M. (2026) ‘Juremahuasca, a sacrament to challenge all doctrines’, in Grünewald, R.A. and Savoldi, E. (eds.) The psychedelic science of the Jurema tree. Cham: Springer. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-22705-8_5. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Lema, V.S. (2024) ‘Contemporary uses of vilca (Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil): a major ritual plant in the Andes’, Plants, 13(17), 2398. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13172398. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Leonti, M., Sticher, O. and Heinrich, M. (2003) ‘Antiquity of medicinal plant usage in two Macro-Mayan ethnic groups (Mexico)’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 88(2–3), pp. 119–124. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00188-0. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Liffman, P.M. (2007) ‘Museums and Mexican Indigenous territoriality’, Museum Anthropology, 30(2), pp. 141–160. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1525/mua.2007.30.2.141. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Liffman, P.M. (2011) Huichol Territory and the Mexican Nation: Indigenous Ritual, Land Conflict, and Sovereignty Claims. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. Available at: JSTOR. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Lockwood, T.E. (1979) ‘The ethnobotany of Brugmansia’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1(2), pp. 147–164. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(79)90004-7. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Lopez-Chau, L.A. et al. (2026) ‘Traditional coca chewing and cortisol modulation in Andean miners: a pilot quasi-experimental repeated-measures study on stress physiology at high altitude’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 120630. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2025.120630. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Loughmiller-Cardinal, J.A. (2019) ‘Distinguishing the uses, functions, and purposes of Classic Maya “chocolate” containers: not all cups are for drinking’, Ancient Mesoamerica, 30(1), pp. 13–30. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Lumholtz, C. (1900) Symbolism of the Huichol Indians. New York: American Museum of Natural History. Available at: Internet Archive. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Lumholtz, C. (1902) Unknown Mexico. 2 vols. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Luna, L.E. (1984) ‘The concept of plants as teachers among four mestizo shamans of Iquitos, northeastern Peru’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 11(2), pp. 135–156. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis
Luna, L.E. (1986) Vegetalismo: Shamanism among the Mestizo Population of the Peruvian Amazon. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Brugmansia suaveolens · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex
Maas, U. and Strubelt, S. (2003) Music in the Iboga Initiation Ceremony in Gabon: Polyrhythms Supporting a Pharmacotherapy. Berlin: VWB. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
MacDougall, T. (1960) ‘Ipomoea tricolor: a hallucinogenic plant of the Zapotecs’, Boletín del Centro de Investigaciones Antropológicas de México, 6(6), pp. 6–8. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
MacDougall, T. (1968) ‘Calea zacatechichi: a Compositae with psychic properties?’, Garden Journal, 18, p. 105. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
MacLean, K.A., Leoutsakos, J.-M.S., Johnson, M.W. and Griffiths, R.R. (2012) ‘Factor analysis of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire: a study of experiences occasioned by the hallucinogen psilocybin’, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 51(4), pp. 721–737. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2012.01685.x. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
MacRae, E. (1992) Guiado pela Lua: Xamanismo e Uso Ritual da Ayahuasca no Culto do Santo Daime. São Paulo: Brasiliense. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Martin, S. (2006) ‘Cacao in ancient Maya religion: first fruit from the maize tree and other tales from the underworld’, in McNeil, C.L. (ed.) Chocolate in Mesoamerica. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, pp. 154–183. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Mary, A. (1983) La naissance à l’envers: essai sur le rituel du Bwiti fang au Gabon. Paris: L’Harmattan. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Mary, A. (1999) Le défi du syncrétisme: le travail symbolique de la religion d’Eboga (Gabon). Paris: Éditions de l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
McNeil, C.L. (ed.) (2006) Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A Cultural History of Cacao. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Mercante, M.S. (2012) Imagens de cura: ayahuasca, imaginação, saúde e doença na Barquinha. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Fiocruz. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Minero Ortega, F. (2022) ‘Sacred journey into the presence of God: ritual use of sacred mushrooms among the Mazatecs of Oaxaca, Mexico’, in Horák, M. (ed.) A Reader in Ethnobotany and Phytotherapy. Brno: Mendel University, pp. 142–155. Available at: https://doi.org/10.11118/978-80-7509-881-8-0142. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Monteiro, J.M., Almeida, C.F.C.B.R., Albuquerque, U.P., Lucena, R.F.P., Florentino, A.T.N. and Oliveira, R.L.C. (2006) ‘Use and traditional management of Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil’, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2, 6. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-6. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Mota, C.N. da (1997) Jurema's Children in the Forest of Spirits: Healing and Ritual among Two Brazilian Indigenous Groups. London: Intermediate Technology Publications. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Munn, H. (1973) ‘The mushrooms of language’, in Harner, M.J. (ed.) Hallucinogens and Shamanism. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 86–122. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Muthukumaraswamy, S.D., Forsyth, A. and Lumley, T. (2021) ‘Blinding and expectancy confounds in psychedelic randomized controlled trials’, Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology, 14(9), pp. 1133–1152. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/17512433.2021.1933434. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Myerhoff, B.G. (1970) ‘The deer-maize-peyote symbol complex among the Huichol Indians of Mexico’, Anthropological Quarterly, 43(2), pp. 64–78. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/3316599. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Myerhoff, B.G. (1974) Peyote Hunt: The Sacred Journey of the Huichol Indians. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Available at: Cornell University Press. cited in
Lophophora williamsii · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Naranjo, P. (1979) ‘Hallucinogenic plant use and related Indigenous belief systems in the Ecuadorian Amazon’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1(2), pp. 121–145. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Negrín, J. (1975) The Huichol Creation of the World: Yarn Tablas by José Benítez Sánchez and Tutukila Carrillo. Sacramento, CA: E.B. Crocker Art Gallery. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Neurath, J. (2002) Las fiestas de la Casa Grande: procesos rituales, cosmovisión y estructura social en una comunidad huichola. Mexico City: INAH. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Neurath, J. (2015) ‘Shifting ontologies in Huichol ritual and art’, Anthropology and Humanism, 40(1), pp. 58–71. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anhu.12068. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Neurath, J. (2021) ‘Becoming peyote, or the flowers of Wirikuta’, in Mathiowetz, M.D. and Turner, A.D. (eds) Flower Worlds: Religion, Aesthetics, and Ideology in Mesoamerica and the American Southwest. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, pp. 53–69. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1khdqp3.7. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Neurath, J. and Reyes, A. (2024) ‘Cataloguing the untranslatable: cosmopolitics, digitisation and place-beings in Mexico’s Gran Nayar region’, Anthropology in Action, 31(3), pp. 30–39. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3167/aia.2024.310304. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Nour, M.M., Evans, L., Nutt, D. and Carhart-Harris, R.L. (2016) ‘Ego-dissolution and psychedelics: validation of the Ego-Dissolution Inventory (EDI)’, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, 269. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00269. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Nyberg, H. (1992) 'Religious use of hallucinogenic fungi: a comparison between Siberian and Mesoamerican cultures', Karstenia, 32(2), pp. 71–80. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Oliver, J.R. (2009) Caciques and Cemi Idols: The Web Spun by Taíno Rulers between Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Overing, J. (1990) ‘The shaman as a maker of worlds: Nelson Goodman in the Amazon’, Man, 25(4), pp. 602–619. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2803656. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Pagnocca, T.S., Zank, S. and Hanazaki, N. (2020) ‘“The plants have axé”: investigating the use of plants in Afro-Brazilian religions of Santa Catarina Island’, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 16, 20. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00372-6. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Peluso, D.M. (2014) ‘Ayahuasca’s attractions and distractions: examining sexual seduction in shaman-participant interactions’, in Labate, B.C. and Cavnar, C. (eds.) Ayahuasca Shamanism in the Amazon and Beyond. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 231–255. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199341191.003.0011. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Pinzón, C.E., Suárez, R. and Garay, G. (2004) Mundos en red: la cultura popular frente a los retos del siglo XXI. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Polia, M. (1988) Las lagunas de los encantos: medicina tradicional andina del Perú septentrional. Piura: CEPESER. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Raponda-Walker, A. and Sillans, R. (1962) Rites et croyances des peuples du Gabon. Paris: Présence Africaine. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. (1971) Amazonian Cosmos: The Sexual and Religious Symbolism of the Tukano Indians. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. (1975) The Shaman and the Jaguar: A Study of Narcotic Drugs among the Indians of Colombia. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana · Ayahuasca Complex
Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. (1978) The Loom of Life: A Kogi Principle of Integration. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Department of Anthropology. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Rodd, R. (2002) ‘Snuff synergy: preparation, use and pharmacology of yopo and Banisteriopsis caapi among the Piaroa of southern Venezuela’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 34(3), pp. 273–279. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2002.10399963. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Rodd, R. (2002a) ‘Märipa teui: a radical empiricist approach to Piaroa shamanic training and initiation’, Antropológica, 96, pp. 53–82. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Rodd, R. (2003) ‘Märipa: to know everything. The experience of power as knowledge derived from the integrative mode of consciousness’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 14(2), pp. 60–88. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1525/ac.2003.14.2.60. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Rodd, R. (2006) ‘Piaroa sorcery and the navigation of negative affect: to be aware, to turn away’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 17(1), pp. 35–64. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1525/ac.2006.17.1.35. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Rodd, R. (2018) ‘Piaroa shamanic ethics and ethos: living by the law and the good life of tranquillity’, International Journal of Latin American Religions, 2(2), pp. 315–333. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41603-018-0059-0. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Rodd, R. and Sumabila, A. (2011) ‘Yopo, ethnicity and social change: a comparative analysis of Piaroa and Cuiva yopo use’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 43(1), pp. 36–45. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2011.566499. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Rubenstein, S.L. (2012) ‘On the importance of visions among the Amazonian Shuar’, Current Anthropology, 53(1), pp. 39–79. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1086/663830. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens · Nicotiana rustica
Russell, A. and Rahman, E. (eds) (2015) The Master Plant: Tobacco in Lowland South America. London: Bloomsbury Academic. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Saar, M. (1991a) ‘Ethnomycological data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the effect of Amanita muscaria’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 31(2), pp. 157–173. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(91)90002-U. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Saar, M. (1991b) ‘Fungi in Khanty folk medicine’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 31(2), pp. 175–179. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(91)90003-V. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Samorini, G. (2022) ‘“Lenin was a mushroom”: Russian post-Soviet history of fly-agaric’, Antrocom Online Journal of Anthropology, 18(1), pp. 5–27. Available at: Antrocom. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Samorini, G. (2024b) ‘Studies on the iboga cults. III. Iboga and Bwiti mythology’, Antrocom Online Journal of Anthropology, 20(2). Available at: antrocom.net. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Samorini, G. (2025a) ‘Studies on the iboga cults VII: the traditional Bwiti’, Antrocom Online Journal of Anthropology, 21(2). cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Sansi, R. and Parés, L.N. (2012) ‘The multiple agencies of Afro-Brazilian religions’, Religion and Society, 3(1), pp. 76–94. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3167/arrs.2012.030105. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Santana de Rose, I. (2018a) ‘Barquinha’, in Gooren, H. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Latin American Religions. Cham: Springer. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08956-0_540-1. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Santana de Rose, I. (2018b) ‘Santo Daime’, in Gooren, H. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Latin American Religions. Cham: Springer. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08956-0_541-1. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Saumade, F. (2009) ‘Taureau, cerf, maïs, peyotl: le quadrant de la culture wixárika (huichol)’, L’Homme, 189, pp. 191–228. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4000/lhomme.22035. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Sayre, M.P. (2018) ‘A synonym for sacred: vilca use in the preconquest Andes’, in Fitzpatrick, S.M. (ed.) Ancient Psychoactive Substances. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, pp. 265–285. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
Schaefer, S.B. and Furst, P.T. (eds) (1996) People of the Peyote: Huichol Indian History, Religion, and Survival. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. cited in
Lophophora williamsii · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Schefer, R. (2020) 'Making the xapiri dance: photography and shamanism in the exhibition Claudia Andujar: The Yanomami Struggle', NECSUS: European Journal of Media Studies, 9(1), pp. 339–350. Available at: journal record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Schultes, R.E. (1941) ‘A contribution to our knowledge of Rivea corymbosa: the narcotic ololiuqui of the Aztecs’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 9(3), pp. 37–62. Available at: JSTOR stable record. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Schultes, R.E. (1967) 'The botanical origins of South American snuffs', in Efron, D.H., Holmstedt, B. and Kline, N.S. (eds.) Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 291–306. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Schultes, R.E. (1979) 'Evolution of the identification of the myristicaceous hallucinogens of South America', Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1(3), pp. 211–239. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Schultes, R.E. and Bright, A. (1977) ‘A native drawing of an hallucinogenic plant from Colombia’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 25(6), pp. 151–159. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5962/p.168623. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Schultes, R.E. and Raffauf, R.F. (1990) The Healing Forest: Medicinal and Toxic Plants of the Northwest Amazonia. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens · Diplopterys cabrerana
Sharon, D. (1972) ‘The San Pedro cactus in Peruvian folk healing’, in Furst, P.T. (ed.) Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens. New York: Praeger, pp. 114–135. Available at: samorini.it. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Sharon, D. (1978) Wizard of the Four Winds: A Shaman’s Story. New York: Free Press. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Sharon, D. (2021) ‘Andean mesas and cosmologies’, Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 21, pp. 1–41. Available at: https://doi.org/10.32859/era.21.10.1-41. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Shepard, G.H. Jr (1998) ‘Psychoactive plants and ethnopsychiatric medicines of the Matsigenka’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30(4), pp. 321–332. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1998.10399708. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens · Diplopterys cabrerana · Nicotiana rustica · Psychotria viridis
Stewart, O.C. (1987) Peyote Religion: A History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Strahlenberg, P.J. von (1730) Das Nord- und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia. Stockholm. Available at: Internet Archive. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Talin, P. (2025) ‘The Santo Daime without Daime: tactics, agency, and ritual change in ayahuasca religions under prohibition in Italy’, Quotidiana, 1(1), pp. 79–100. Available at: https://doi.org/10.30687/QU/0122-2244/2025/01/004. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Talin, P. (2026) ‘Otherwise ayahuasca expressions: ritual reinvention and social change in ayahuasca rituals’, Studia Religiologica, 58(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.4467/20844077SR.25.006.22458. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Taussig, M. (1987) Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana
Taylor, A.C. (1993) ‘Remembering to forget: identity, mourning and memory among the Jivaro’, Man, 28(4), pp. 653–678. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Tedlock, B. (1992) Time and the Highland Maya, revised edn. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Tene, V. et al. (2007) ‘An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 111(1), pp. 63–81. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.10.032. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
The Metropolitan Museum of Art (2026) ‘Ngombi (arched harp), Fang/Kele peoples, Gabon, object 89.4.3527’. Available at: metmuseum.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Torres, C.M. and Repke, D.B. (2006) Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of Ancient South America. New York: Haworth Herbal Press. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina
Tupper, K.W. (2008) ‘The globalization of ayahuasca: harm reduction or benefit maximization?’, International Journal of Drug Policy, 19(4), pp. 297–303. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.11.001. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Tupper, K.W. (2009) ‘Ayahuasca healing beyond the Amazon: the globalization of a traditional Indigenous entheogenic practice’, Global Networks, 9(1), pp. 117–136. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2009.00245.x. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Uchôa, R. (2026) 'Amazonian cosmologies, plant–human relations and the colonial entanglements of Indigenous artifacts', History of Science, OnlineFirst. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/00732753261423335. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Valdés, L.J. III, Díaz, J.-L. and Paul, A.G. (1983) ‘Ethnopharmacology of ska María Pastora (Salvia divinorum, Epling and Játiva-M.)’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 7(3), pp. 287–312. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(83)90004-1. cited in
Salvia divinorum · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Vickers, W.T. (1989) Los Sionas y Secoyas: su adaptación al ambiente amazónico. Quito: Abya-Yala. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Vickers, W.T. and Plowman, T. (1984) ‘Useful plants of the Siona and Secoya Indians of eastern Ecuador’, Fieldiana Botany, new series 15. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Wadsworth, J.E. (2006) ‘Jurema and Batuque: Indians, Africans, and the Inquisition in colonial northeastern Brazil’, History of Religions, 46(2), pp. 140–162. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1086/511448. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Wasson, R.G. (1963) ‘Notes on the present status of ololiuhqui and the other hallucinogens of Mexico’, Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 20(6), pp. 161–193. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa · Salvia divinorum
Wasson, R.G. (1968) Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Wasson, R.G., Cowan, G., Cowan, F. and Rhodes, W. (1974) María Sabina and Her Mazatec Mushroom Velada. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Wilbert, J. (1972) ‘Tobacco and shamanistic ecstasy among the Warao Indians of Venezuela’, in Furst, P.T. (ed.) Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens. New York: Praeger, pp. 55–83. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Wilbert, J. (1987) Tobacco and Shamanism in South America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. cited in
Nicotiana rustica · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Williams, K. (2022) ‘Indigenous philosophies and the “psychedelic renaissance”’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 33(2), pp. 506–527. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anoc.12161. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Winkelman, M.J. (2022) ‘Amanita muscaria: Fly Agaric history, mythology and pharmacology’, Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 6(1), pp. 1–12. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2022.00216. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Winter, J.C. (ed.) (2000) Tobacco Use by Native North Americans: Sacred Smoke and Silent Killer. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Wylie, L. (2013) ‘Seven “fragments of things”: the aesthetics of yagé’, in Colombia’s Forgotten Frontier: A Literary Geography of the Putumayo. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, pp. 183–209. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Law, policy & patents
08 · 158 sources
Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA) (2025) RDC no. 999/2025: listas de substâncias sujeitas a controle especial. Available at: ANVISA record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Austin, T. (2014) ‘Method for producing muscimol and/or reducing ibotenic acid from Amanita tissue’, US Patent US8784835B2, granted 22 July. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Beckley Psytech Ltd (2025) '5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) powder formulation', patent application WO2025153822A1. Available at: patent record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Béguin, C., Carlezon, W.A., Cohen, B.M., He, M., Lee, D.Y.-W., Richards, M.R. and Liu-Chen, L.-Y. (2009) ‘Salvinorin derivatives and uses thereof’, US Patent 7,629,475 B2, 8 December. Available at: patents.google.com. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Bosse, J. (2024) ‘Re-examining the “wild” story of the ayahuasca plant patent’, Intellectual Property Quarterly, 2, pp. 136–162. Available at: Queen’s University Belfast Research Portal. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Bosse, M. (2024) ‘The “Da Vine” patent: ayahuasca, biopiracy and the limits of plant patent law’, Intellectual Property Quarterly, 2, pp. 136–162. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Políticas sobre Drogas (CONAD) (2010) Resolução No. 1, de 25 de janeiro de 2010. Brasília: Diário Oficial da União. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Bussmann, R.W. and Sharon, D. (2013) ‘The globalization of traditional medicine in Northern Peru: from shamanism to molecules’, Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2013, 291903. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/291903. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
CABI (2026) ‘Turbina corymbosa (Christmas vine)’, CABI Compendium. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.117701 (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
Cavallaro, M. et al. (2026) ‘The effects of mescaline on functional brain connectivity in awake rats’, Neuroscience Bulletin. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12264-026-01632-3. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Ceccarelli, V. et al. (2022) ‘Conservation and use of genetic resources of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) by gene banks and nurseries in six Latin American countries’, Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 69, pp. 1283–1302. cited in
Theobroma cacao
CITES (2026) ‘Appendices I, II and III: Cactaceae spp.’ Available at: cites.org (Accessed: 6 August 2026). cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
CITES (2026) ‘Appendices I, II and III’. Available at: cites.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Coe, M.A. and Gaoue, O.G. (2023) ‘Increased clonal growth in heavily harvested ecosystems failed to rescue ayahuasca lianas from decline in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest’, Journal of Applied Ecology, 60(10), pp. 2140–2152. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Commonwealth of Australia (2026) Therapeutic Goods (Poisons Standard—June 2026) Instrument 2026, F2026L00633. Available at: legislation.gov.au. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
CONAD (2010) Resolução No. 1, de 25 de janeiro de 2010. Brasília: Conselho Nacional de Políticas sobre Drogas. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Conkling, M.A. et al. (2024) ‘Tobacco plants comprising reduced nicotine and tobacco-specific nitrosamines’, US Patent 12,077,765 B2, 3 September. Available at: patents.google.com. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Conselho Nacional de Políticas sobre Drogas (CONAD) (2010) Resolução n.º 1, de 25 de janeiro de 2010. Brasília: Ministério da Justiça e Segurança Pública. Available at: gov.br (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (2026) ‘Access and Benefit-Sharing Clearing-House: Gabon’. Available at: absch.cbd.int (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
DE102016014603A1 (2018) ‘Synthetic ayahuasca’. German patent application. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Drabiak, K. (2025) ‘Caution is warranted in prescribing ketamine for mental health conditions’, Journal of General Internal Medicine. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-025-10024-8. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) (2020) Drug Fact Sheet: Salvia Divinorum. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice. Available at: dea.gov (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) (2025) ‘Broomfield man sentenced to 48 months for ibogaine distribution’, 25 September. Available at: dea.gov. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) (2026) ‘Salvia divinorum’. Available at: dea.gov (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Salvia divinorum
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) (2026) ‘Schedules of controlled substance: temporary placement of 7-hydroxymitragynine above a specified threshold in Schedule I’, Federal Register, 91, pp. 40917–40924. Available at: federalregister.gov. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Engel, L., Barratt, M., Ferris, J., Puljevic, C. and Winstock, A. (2023) ‘Mescaline, Peyote and San Pedro: is sustainability important for cacti consumers?’, Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 7(2), pp. 135–142. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2023.00252. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica (2026) ‘Eleusis’. Available at: efada.gr (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Ermakova, A.O. et al. (2025) ‘Of shrub, cactus, vine and toad: psychedelic species conservation and sustainability’, Frontiers in Conservation Science, 6, 1569528. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2025.1569528. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Lophophora williamsii · Psychotria viridis · Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Ermakova, A.O. et al. (2025) ‘Toward the biocultural conservation of ayahuasca’, Frontiers in Conservation Science, 6, 1569528. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (2017) Ley No. 906, Ley General de la Coca, 8 March. Available at: lexivox.org (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Erythroxylum coca
European Commission (2026) ‘Regulation on deforestation-free products: implementation timeline’. cited in
Theobroma cacao
European Union Drugs Agency (EUDA) (2026) ‘Salvia divinorum drug profile’. Available at: euda.europa.eu (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Salvia divinorum
FR3083450A1 — patent, oily bark extract for antioxidant/anti-ageing/hair-care applications. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Gerber, K., Flores, I.G., Ruiz, A.C. and Ali, I. (2021) ‘Ethical concerns about psilocybin intellectual property’, ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science, 4(2), pp. 573–577. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.0c00171. cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal, 546 U.S. 418 (2006). Available at: supreme.justia.com (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
González Romero, M. (2023) ‘Cognitive liberty: a human right in the neurotechnology era’, Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1128996. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1128996. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Google Patents (2026a) ‘US3075992A—Esters of indoles’, inventors A. Hofmann and F. Troxler; legal status: expired. Available at: patents.google.com (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Google Patents (2026b) ‘US10519175B2—Preparation of psilocybin, different polymorphic forms, intermediates, formulations and their use’, assignee Compass Pathfinder Ltd. Available at: patents.google.com (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Home Office (2025) ‘Controlled drugs list’. London: UK Government. Available at: gov.uk (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Erythroxylum coca · Ipomoea corymbosa
Huxley Health Inc. (2024) 'Nano- and micro-formulations', patent application US20240226005A1. Available at: patent record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
ICEERS (2026) Charting a Path Forward for Iboga: Phase 3 Report. Barcelona: International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Service. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
INCB (2012) Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2010. New York: United Nations, paras 284–287. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Indigenous Peyote Conservation Initiative (2020) Sacred Peyote Conservation: Indigenous Strategy and Land Stewardship. Mirando City, Texas: IPCI. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Instituto Nacional de Cultura del Perú (2008) Resolución Directoral Nacional No. 836/INC: declaratoria de patrimonio cultural de los conocimientos y usos tradicionales de la ayahuasca. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis
International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Service (ICEERS) (2025) ‘Mexico reopens the debate on psilocybin mushrooms’, 11 September. Available at: iceers.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
International Cocoa Organization (2026) Cocoa Daily Prices. Abidjan: ICCO, data for 4 August 2026. cited in
Theobroma cacao
International Narcotics Control Board (2022) Green List: List of Psychotropic Substances under International Control. Vienna: United Nations. cited in
Psychotria viridis
International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) (2010) Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2010. New York: United Nations, para. 284. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) (2012) Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2012. New York: United Nations, para. 329. Available at: incb.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) (2024) Tables of the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988, as at 3 December 2024. Vienna: United Nations. Available at: incb.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) (2026) Green List: List of Psychotropic Substances under International Control. Vienna: United Nations. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) (2026) Narcotic Drugs 2025: Estimated World Requirements for 2026; Statistics for 2024. Vienna: United Nations. Available at: incb.org. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
International Union for Conservation of Nature (2017) ‘Lophophora williamsii: amended assessment’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
INTERPOL (2023) Illicit Trafficking of Natural Psychotropics. Lyon: INTERPOL. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Jones, Z.M. and Zhang, X. (2024) ‘Identifying the role of industrial heritage in the European Capital of Culture programme’, Built Heritage, 8, 20. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s43238-024-00133-4. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Kingdom of Thailand (2022) Kratom Plant Act, B.E. 2565 (2022). Government Gazette, 139. Unofficial English translation available at: moleg.go.kr. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Klaiber, A., Kolaczynska, K.E., Duthaler, U. et al. (2024a) ‘Acute dose-dependent effects of mescaline in a double-blind placebo-controlled study in healthy subjects’, Translational Psychiatry, 14, 395. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-024-03116-2. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Lophophora williamsii · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Krause, F. (2025) ‘Reassessing ayahuasca regulation in Brazil: strategic framing and cumulative gains’, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 32(4), pp. 380–391. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2024.2415319. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Labate, B.C. (2012) ‘Paradoxes of ayahuasca expansion: the UDV–DEA agreement and the limits of freedom of religion’, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 19(1), pp. 19–26. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3109/09687637.2011.606397. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Labate, B.C. and Cavnar, C. (eds.) (2014) Ayahuasca Shamanism in the Amazon and Beyond. New York: Oxford University Press. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Ayahuasca Complex
Labate, B.C. and Feeney, K. (2012) ‘Ayahuasca and the process of regulation in Brazil and internationally: implications and challenges’, International Journal of Drug Policy, 23(2), pp. 154–161. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.06.006. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Langlitz, N. (2013) Neuropsychedelia: the revival of hallucinogen research since the decade of the brain. Berkeley: University of California Press. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Leas, E.C., Satybaldiyeva, N., Kepner, W. et al. (2024) ‘Need for a public health response to the unregulated sales of Amanita muscaria mushrooms’, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 67(3), pp. 458–463. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2024.05.006. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Ley, L., Holze, F., Arikci, D. et al. (2023) ‘Comparative acute effects of mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide, and psilocybin in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study in healthy participants’, Neuropsychopharmacology, 48, pp. 1659–1667. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-023-01607-2. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Lophophora williamsii · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Liechti, M.E. (2023) ‘Effects of mescaline and of mescaline analogs (scalines) to assist psychotherapy’, US Patent Application US20230000799A1, published 5 January; status listed as abandoned. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Liechti, M.E. (2023) ‘Immediate release formulations of d-lysergic acid diethylamide for use in therapy’, US Patent Application US20230285386A1, published 14 September. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Liechti, M.E. (2023) ‘LSD dose identification’, US Patent US11717517B2, granted 8 August. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Liechti, M.E. et al. (2023) ‘Lysergic acid derivatives with modified LSD-like action’, Patent Application WO2023250298A1, published 28 December. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Lotsof, H.S. (1985) ‘Rapid method for interrupting the narcotic addiction syndrome’, US Patent US4499096A, granted 12 February. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Louisiana Legislature (2026) Louisiana Revised Statutes §40:989: Unlawful production, manufacture, distribution, or possession of hallucinogenic plants. Available at: legis.la.gov (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Louisiana State Legislature (2026) ‘RS 40:989.1—Unlawful production, manufacture, distribution, or possession of hallucinogenic plants; exceptions’. Available at: legis.la.gov (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Malaysia (1952, as amended) Poisons Act 1952 (Act 366) and Poisons (Psychotropic Substances) Regulations 1989. Kuala Lumpur: Government of Malaysia. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Marcus, O. (2023) ‘“Everybody’s creating it along the way”: ethical tensions among globalized ayahuasca shamanisms and therapeutic integration practices’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 48(3), pp. 455–472. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/03080188.2022.2075201. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Marks, M. (2021) ‘Patents on psychedelics: the next legal battlefront of drug development’, Harvard Law Review Forum, 135. Available at: Harvard Law Review (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Marks, M. (2022) ‘Patents on psychedelics: the next legal battlefront of drug development’, Harvard Law Review Forum, 135, pp. 212–237. Available at: harvardlawreview.org. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Medsafe (2021) ‘Kratom—not such a nice cup of tea’, Prescriber Update, 42(4). Available at: medsafe.govt.nz (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Ministerio de Cultura del Perú (2022) Resolución Viceministerial N.º 000252-2022-VMPCIC/MC: Conocimientos, saberes y usos tradicionales del cactus San Pedro. Available at: Diario Oficial El Peruano (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Ministerio de Cultura del Perú (2022) Resolución Viceministerial N.º 252-2022-VMPCIC/MC, 14 November. Available at: gob.pe (Accessed: 6 August 2026). cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Ministry of Trade of Indonesia (2024) Regulation No. 20 of 2024 concerning amendments to prohibited export goods and Regulation No. 21 of 2024 concerning kratom export policy. Jakarta: Republic of Indonesia. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Monster Color Carnival LLC (2022) Delivery system for ayahuasca-like substances. US Patent US11235110B1. Available at: Google Patents record. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Mueller, L., Klaiber, A., Ley, L. et al. (2025) ‘Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and urinary recovery of oral mescaline hydrochloride in healthy participants’, Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 64(10), pp. 1495–1506. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40262-025-01544-x. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Nascimento, L.L. et al. (2024) ‘Innovation in cocoa fermentation: evidence from patent documents and scientific articles’, Fermentation, 10(5), 251. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Ordak, M. et al. (2023) 'Reasons, form of ingestion and side effects associated with consumption of Amanita muscaria', Toxics, 11(4), 383. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Oregon Health Authority (OHA) (2023) Oregon Psilocybin Services fact sheet. Available at: OHA (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Peru, Instituto Nacional de Cultura (2008) Resolución Directoral Nacional No. 836/INC: Declaran Patrimonio Cultural de la Nación los conocimientos y usos tradicionales del ayahuasca practicados por comunidades nativas amazónicas. Lima: Instituto Nacional de Cultura. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Press, E. (2022) ‘Ayahuasca on trial’, The New Yorker, 12 September. Available at: newyorker.com (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Press, S.V. (2022) ‘Ayahuasca on trial: biocolonialism, biopiracy, and the commodification of a sacred plant’, History of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals, 63(2), pp. 328–353. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3368/hopp.63.2.328. cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Psyched Wellness Corp. (2022) ‘Processes for extracting muscimol from Amanita muscaria’, International Patent Application WO2022187974A1, published 9 September. Available at: WIPO Patentscope (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Psyched Wellness Corp. (2024) ‘Amanita muscaria mushroom extracts and methods of producing the same’, International Patent Application WO2024173903A1, published 29 August. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Reconnect Labs AG (2024) Highly soluble harmine formulations. International Patent WO2024023274A2. Available at: Google Patents record. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Republic of Colombia (1986) Ley 30 de 1986, Estatuto Nacional de Estupefacientes, 31 January. Available at: funcionpublica.gov.co (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Republic of Peru (1978) Decreto Ley No. 22095, Ley de Represión del Tráfico Ilícito de Drogas, 21 February. Available at: gob.pe (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Erythroxylum coca
Rivera-Arce, E. et al. (2007) 'Therapeutic effectiveness of a Mimosa tenuiflora cortex extract in venous leg ulceration treatment', Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 109(3), pp. 523–528. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Schroth, G. et al. (2016) ‘Vulnerability to climate change of cocoa in West Africa: patterns, opportunities and limits to adaptation’, Science of the Total Environment, 556, pp. 231–241. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Shaw, J. et al. (2026) ‘The ethnopharmacological use of mescaline for therapeutic purposes: a systematic review’, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 27(7), 3081. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27073081. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Shenvi, R., Roach, J., Sasano, Y., Bohn, L. and Schmid, C. (2022) ‘Synthesis of 20-nor-salvinorin A’, US Patent 11,512,075 B2, 29 November. Available at: patents.google.com. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Simonienko, K., Waszkiewicz, N. and Szulc, A. (2013) ‘Psychoactive plant species—actual list of plants prohibited in Poland’, Psychiatria Polska, 47(3), pp. 499–508. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Supreme Court of the United States (2006) Gonzales v O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal, 546 U.S. 418. Available at: Justia US Supreme Court Center (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Psychotria viridis · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Terry, M. and Trout, K. (2017) ‘Regulation of peyote (Lophophora williamsii: Cactaceae) in the U.S.A.: a historical victory of religion and politics over science and medicine’, Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 11(1), pp. 147–156. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Terry, M. et al. (2012) ‘Limitations to natural production of Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae) II: effects of repeated harvesting at two-year intervals’, Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 6(2), pp. 567–577. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Terry, M. et al. (2014) ‘Limitations to natural production of Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae) III: effects of repeated harvesting at two-year intervals for six years’, Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 8(2), pp. 541–550. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
Terry, M., Trout, K., Williams, B., Herrera, T. and Fowler, N. (2011) ‘Limitations to natural production of Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae). I. Regrowth and survivorship two years post harvest in a South Texas population’, Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 5(2), pp. 661–675. Available at: JSTOR. cited in
Lophophora williamsii · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
The White House (2026) ‘Accelerating medical treatments for serious mental illness’, Executive Order 14401, 17 April. Available at: whitehouse.gov (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) (2026) ‘MDMA and psilocybine hub’ and ‘Updates to Authorised Prescriber scheme requirements’, updated 26 May. Available at: TGA (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
Tupper, K.W. and Labate, B.C. (2012) ‘Plants, psychoactive substances and the International Narcotics Control Board: the control of nature and the nature of control’, Human Rights and Drugs, 2(1), pp. 17–28. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2024) Scientific Memorandum: Amanita muscaria (9 September 2024). Available at: fda.gov (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2025) ‘FDA and kratom’. Updated 2 December 2025. Available at: fda.gov (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
UK Government (2016) Psychoactive Substances Act 2016. London: The Stationery Office. Available at: legislation.gov.uk. cited in
Calea zacatechichi · Mitragyna speciosa
UK Government (2025) 'List of most commonly encountered drugs currently controlled under the misuse of drugs legislation'. Available at: GOV.UK record (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
UK Government (2026) ‘Controlled drugs list’. Available at: gov.uk (Accessed: 6 August 2026). cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
UK Government (2026) Controlled drugs list. London: Home Office. Available at: GOV.UK (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
UK Parliament (2016) Psychoactive Substances Act 2016, c. 2. Available at: legislation.gov.uk. cited in
Salvia divinorum
UK Parliament (2026) Tobacco and Vapes Act 2026. London: The Stationery Office. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
UMIYAC (2019) Declaration about Cultural Appropriation from the Spiritual Authorities, Representatives and Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon Region. Mocoa: Unión de Médicos Indígenas Yageceros de la Amazonía Colombiana. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
UMIYAC (2022) Code of Ethics for the Practice of Indigenous Medicine in the Amazon Piedmont of Colombia. Mocoa: UMIYAC. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2025a) ‘Wixárika Route through Sacred Sites to Wirikuta (Tatehuarí Huajuyé)’. Available at: whc.unesco.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Lophophora williamsii · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
United Nations (1961) Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, as amended by the 1972 Protocol. New York: United Nations. Available at: incb.org. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
United Nations (1971) Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Vienna: United Nations. Available at: unodc.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
United Nations (1988) Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. Vienna: United Nations. Available at: incb.org. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (1971) Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971. Vienna: United Nations. Available at: unodc.org (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Mimosa tenuiflora · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues · Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2024) Monitoring of Territories with Presence of Coca Cultivation 2023. Bogotá: UNODC and Government of Colombia. Available at: unodc.org. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
United States Congress (1994) American Indian Religious Freedom Act Amendments of 1994, Pub. L. 103–344, 108 Stat. 3125. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
United States Patent and Trademark Office (1986) Banisteriopsis caapi (cv.) ‘Da Vine’, US Plant Patent 5,751. Available at: USPP5751P (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Ayahuasca Complex
United States Supreme Court (1990) Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of Oregon v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
University of Zurich (2021) Combinations of DMT and harmine for use in therapy. International Patent WO2021259962A1. Available at: Google Patents record. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
US District Court, District of Oregon (2009) Church of the Holy Light of the Queen v Mukasey, 615 F. Supp. 2d 1210. Available at: GovInfo (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2019) Spravato Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy. Available at: FDA (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2023) ‘FDA warns patients and health care providers about potential risks associated with compounded ketamine products, including oral formulations, for the treatment of psychiatric disorders’, 10 October. Available at: FDA (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2024a) Complete Response Letter: NDA 215455, midomafetamine capsules, 8 August. Available at: FDA (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2024b) Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee briefing document: NDA 215455, 4 June. Available at: FDA (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2025) Spravato (esketamine) nasal spray: prescribing information. Available at: FDA (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Clinical Psychedelic Ritual Complex
US Government (2026) ‘§1308.11 Schedule I’, Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21. Available at: eCFR (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
US Patent and Trademark Office (1986) ‘Banisteriopsis caapi (cv.) “Da Vine”’, US Plant Patent PP5,751, granted 17 June. Available at: Google Patents (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
US11602521B2 (2023) ‘N,N-dimethyltryptamine compositions and methods’. United States patent. cited in
Psychotria viridis
US20040266659A1 (2004) ‘Substances that enhance recall and lucidity during dreaming’. United States patent application. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
US20220265582A1 (2022) ‘Effects of mescaline and of other psychedelics in healthy subjects’. United States patent application. cited in
Lophophora williamsii
US7820713B2 (2010) ‘Cocoa extracts, cocoa polyphenols and methods of use’. United States patent. cited in
Theobroma cacao
US8092840B2 (2012) ‘Dietary supplement and a method to enhance sleep and lucid dreaming’. United States patent. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
US8784835B2 (2014) 'Method for producing muscimol and/or reducing ibotenic acid from Amanita tissue'. United States patent. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Walsh, C. (2016) ‘Psychedelics and cognitive liberty: reimagining drug policy through the prism of human rights’, International Journal of Drug Policy, 29, pp. 80–87. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2015.12.025. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
White, D.M., Soberón Garrido, R., Conzelman, C.S. et al. (2025) ‘Scientific distinctions between coca and cocaine support policy reform’, Science, 390(6775), eaeb2948. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aeb2948. cited in
Erythroxylum coca
WHO FCTC (2026) ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: the Tobacco and Vapes Bill becomes law’, 13 May. Available at: extranet.who.int (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Nicotiana rustica
WO2007072233A2 — patent, M. tenuiflora extracts and ulcer-treatment use. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
WO2015195535A2 (2015) ‘Production of lysergic acid by genetic modification of a fungus’. International patent application. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
WO2017165738A1 (2017) ‘Mitragynine alkaloids as opioid receptor modulators’. International patent application. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
WO2020160280A1 (2020) ‘Deuterated mitragynine analogs as safer opioid analgesics’. International patent application. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
WO2021259962A1 (2021) ‘Compositions and kits of parts comprising a psychedelic and a monoamine oxidase inhibitor’. International patent application. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis
WO2022187974A1 (2022) 'Processes for extracting muscimol from Amanita muscaria'. International patent application. cited in
Amanita muscaria
WO2023015395A1 (2023) 'Amanita muscaria extracts and compounds and their beneficial and therapeutic use'. International patent application. cited in
Amanita muscaria
WO2023096577A2 (2023) ‘Production of D-lysergic acid’. International patent application. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Ipomoea corymbosa
WO2024171204A1 (2024) ‘Process for purification of mitragynine’. International patent application. Available at: Google Patents. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
WO2024173903A1 (2024) 'Amanita-muscaria mushroom extracts and products, and improved processes for producing extracts of Amanita-muscaria mushrooms at kilogram scale'. International patent application. cited in
Amanita muscaria
WO2025178990A1 (2025) ‘Cacao plant cell culture, compositions and methods’. International patent application. cited in
Theobroma cacao
World Health Organization (2003) WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. Geneva: WHO. Available at: fctc.who.int. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
World Health Organization (WHO) (2021) Kratom, mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine: pre-review report. 44th Expert Committee on Drug Dependence. Available at: who.int. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
World Health Organization (WHO) (2022) WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence: forty-fourth report. WHO Technical Report Series 1037. Geneva: WHO. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
World Health Organization (WHO) (2025) ‘WHO Expert Committee concludes critical review of coca leaf, recommends maintaining current controls’, 10 December. Available at: who.int (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Erythroxylum coca
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) (2024) WIPO Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge. Geneva: WIPO. Available at: wipo.int (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Erythroxylum coca · Ipomoea corymbosa · Theobroma cacao
Primary records & sources
09 · 3 sources
Bizzotto, J. (2018) ‘The hypothesis on the presence of entheogens in the Eleusinian Mysteries’, Medicina Historica, 2(2), pp. 109–110. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Mosurinjohn, S. and Ascough, R.S. (2026) ‘Psychedelics, Eleusis, and the invention of religious experience’, Psychedelic Medicine, 4(1), pp. 35–44. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/28314425251361835. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Muraresku, B.C. (2020) The Immortality Key: The Secret History of the Religion with No Name. New York: St Martin’s Press. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Toxicology & safety
10 · 20 sources
Australian Government (2026) Species profile and threats database: Acacia courtii. Canberra: Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Available at: Species profile (Accessed: 29 July 2026). cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Berdai, M.A., Labib, S., Harandou, M. and Atmani, M. (2014) ‘Peganum harmala intoxication: a case report’, Case Reports in Emergency Medicine, 2014, 783236. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/783236. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Bezerra, J.J.L., Pinheiro, A.A.V. and Lucena, R.B. (2021) 'Phytochemistry and teratogenic potential of Mimosa tenuiflora in ruminants: a systematic review', Toxicon, 195, pp. 78–85. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
de Carvalho, M.S., de Almeida, G.V.B., Arunachalam, K., Colodel, E.M., Olaya, C.E.B. and Martins, D.T.O. (2024) 'Evaluation of the toxicity of the hydroethanolic extract of the stem bark of Virola elongata (Benth.) Warb. in in vitro and in vivo models', Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 319, 117171. cited in
Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
de Sousa, R.P. et al. (2024) 'Unraveling the metabolomic profile and acute toxicity of ethanolic extract from Mimosa tenuiflora root bark', Toxicon, 249, 108076. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
EFSA CONTAM Panel (2012) ‘Scientific opinion on ergot alkaloids in food and feed’, EFSA Journal, 10(7), 2798. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2798. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
EFSA CONTAM Panel (2024) ‘Risks for animal health related to the presence of ergot alkaloids in feed’, EFSA Journal, 22(1), 8496. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8496. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR) (2026) ‘21 CFR §1308.13 and §1310.02: Schedule III substances and List I chemicals’. Available at: ecfr.gov (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Claviceps purpurea
European Commission (2023) ‘Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food’, Official Journal of the European Union, L119, pp. 103–157. Available at: EUR-Lex (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Claviceps purpurea
European Commission (2024) ‘Commission Regulation (EU) 2024/1808 amending Regulation (EU) 2023/915 as regards the application date of lower maximum levels for ergot sclerotia and ergot alkaloids in food’. Available at: EUR-Lex (Accessed: 7 August 2026). cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Gardner, D.R. et al. (2014) 'Teratogenic effects of Mimosa tenuiflora in a rat model and possible role of N-methyl- and N,N-dimethyltryptamine', Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 62(30), pp. 7398–7401. — also tagged Chemistry & pharmacology cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) (2025) Red List: List of Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the Illicit Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 23rd edn. Vienna: United Nations. Available at: incb.org. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
IUCN (2021) ‘Mimosa tenuiflora’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Cambridge: International Union for Conservation of Nature. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Litjens, R.P.W. and Brunt, T.M. (2016) ‘How toxic is ibogaine?’, Clinical Toxicology, 54(4), pp. 297–302. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2016.1138226. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
NSW Threatened Species Scientific Committee (2026) Acacia courtii — final determination. Sydney: NSW Government. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Ordak, M. (2026) ‘Amanita muscaria in the evolving novel psychoactive substances landscape—toxicological risks and clinical implications: a narrative review’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 17, 1838212. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2026.1838212. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Rumph, J.T., Winquist, A., Troeschel, A.N. et al. (2026) ‘Severe illness associated with eating mushroom-containing chocolate products—United States, January–October 2024’, MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 75(13), pp. 179–184. Available at: CDC. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Satora, L., Pach, D., Butryn, B., Hydzik, P. and Balicka-Ślusarczyk, B. (2005) 'Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) poisoning, case report and review', Toxicon, 45(7), pp. 941–943. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Stoeva-Grigorova, S. et al. (2025) ‘Acute Amanita muscaria toxicity: a literature review and case series’, Toxins, 17(12), 570. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17120570. cited in
Amanita muscaria · Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Voynova, M., Shkondrov, A., Kondeva-Burdina, M. and Krasteva, I. (2020) 'Toxicological and pharmacological profile of Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam.—a new rising opportunity for biomedicine', Pharmacia, 67(4), pp. 317–323. cited in
Amanita muscaria
Visionary phenomenology
11 · 97 sources
Addy, P.H. (2012) ‘Acute and post-acute behavioral and psychological effects of salvinorin A in humans’, Psychopharmacology, 220, pp. 195–204. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2470-6. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Agin-Liebes, G., Haas, T.F., Lancelotta, R., Uthaug, M.V., Ramaekers, J.G. and Davis, A.K. (2021) ‘Naturalistic use of mescaline is associated with self-reported psychiatric improvements and enduring positive life changes’, ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science, 4(2), pp. 543–552. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.1c00018. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Lophophora williamsii · Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Aicher, H.D. et al. (2026) ‘DMT–harmine reduces embarrassment and shame following social performance’, Psychopharmacology. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-026-07118-4. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Aicher, H.D., Mueller, F., Dornbierer, D., Schmid, Y., Becker, A.M., Pokorny, T. and Borgwardt, S. (2024) ‘Acute effects of DMT and harmine on social cognition’, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1302559. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1302559. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Andión, Ó., Bouso, J.C., Sarris, J.J., Tófoli, L.F., Opaleye, E.S. and Perkins, D. (2025) ‘A new insight into ayahuasca’s adverse effects: reanalysis and perspectives on its mediating role in mental health from the Global Ayahuasca Survey (GAS)’, PLOS Mental Health, 2(4), e0000097. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmen.0000097. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Avram, M., Fortea, L., Wollner, L. et al. (2025) ‘Large-scale brain connectivity changes following the administration of lysergic acid diethylamide, d-amphetamine, and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine’, Molecular Psychiatry, 30, pp. 1297–1307. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-024-02734-y. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Berlowitz, I. et al. (2024) ‘Traditional Indigenous-Amazonian therapy involving ceremonial tobacco drinking as medicine: a transdisciplinary multi-epistemic observational study’, Health Education & Behavior, 51(6), pp. 796–808. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/10901981231213348. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Berlowitz, I., García Torres, E., Maake, C., Wolf, U. and Martin-Soelch, C. (2023) ‘Indigenous-Amazonian traditional medicine’s usage of the tobacco plant: a transdisciplinary ethnopsychological mixed-methods case study’, Plants, 12(2), 346. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12020346. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Berlowitz, I., García Torres, E., Walt, H., Wolf, U., Maake, C. and Martin-Soelch, C. (2020) ‘“Tobacco is the chief medicinal plant in my work”: therapeutic uses of tobacco in Peruvian Amazonian medicine exemplified by the work of a maestro tabaquero’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 11, 594591. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.594591. cited in
Nicotiana rustica
Bohn, A., Kiggen, M.H.H., Uthaug, M.V., van Oorsouw, K.I.M., Ramaekers, J.G. and van Schie, H.T. (2023) ‘Altered states of consciousness during ceremonial San Pedro use’, The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 33(4), pp. 309–331. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2022.2139502. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi · Andean Huachuma–Mesa Complex
Bonomo, Y.A., Norman, A.F., Collins, L., Ross, M., Dwyer, J., Perkins, D. and Sarris, J. (2025) ‘DMT and harmala alkaloids: an exploratory study of oral Acacia based formulations in healthy volunteers’, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 16, 1545915. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1545915. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Bouso, J.C., Andión, Ó., Sarris, J., Scheidegger, M., Tófoli, L.F., Opaleye, E.S., Schubert, V., Perkins, D. and Sánchez-Avilés, C. (2022) ‘Adverse effects of ayahuasca: results from the Global Ayahuasca Survey’, PLOS Global Public Health, 2(11), e0000438. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0000438. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Brown, T.K., Noller, G.E. and Denenberg, J.O. (2019) ‘Ibogaine and subjective experience: transformative states and psychopharmacotherapy in the treatment of opioid use disorder’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 51(2), pp. 155–165. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2019.1598603. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Burby, T. (2021) ‘Cacao as the Key to the Doors of Perception’: Embodied Spirituality, Transcendence, and Healing through Ritualized Entheogen Consumption. MA thesis. University of Oregon. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Burroughs, W.S. and Ginsberg, A. (1963) The Yage Letters. San Francisco: City Lights. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana
Calder, A.E., Diehl, V.J., Lietz, M.P. et al. (2026) ‘Acute and post-acute neurobehavioral responses to lysergic acid diethylamide in healthy subjects: a randomized controlled study’, Neuropsychopharmacology, 51, pp. 1577–1587. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-026-02454-7. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Cameron, L.P., Tombari, R.J., Lu, J. et al. (2021) ‘A non-hallucinogenic psychedelic analogue with therapeutic potential’, Nature, 589, pp. 474–479. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-3008-z. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Castro, P.S.C.C., Leopoldo, K., Pedro, M.O.P. et al. (2025) ‘Lysergic acid amide (LSA), an LSD analog: systematic review of pharmacological effects, adverse outcomes, and therapeutic potentials’, Pharmacy, 13(4), 98. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy13040098. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Charles, C.R. and Ormsby, A.A. (2026) ‘Potential interpersonal applications of cacao: a review and call for further research’, Ethnobiology Letters, 17(1), pp. 22–33. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Coe, M., Huestis, M.A., Wang, D.W. et al. (2026) ‘Assessment of abuse potential-related effects of oral dried kratom leaf powder in healthy normal participants following single and multiple daily doses’, Drug Testing and Analysis, 18(7), pp. 922–932. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.70089. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Correia, M.S., Gonzaga, M.J., Temple, C. and Gerona, R.R. (2025) ‘Quantitative analysis of recreational psychoactive mushroom gummies in Portland, Oregon’, Clinical Toxicology, pp. 1–6. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2025.2450240. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Cott, C. and Rock, A.J. (2008) ‘Phenomenology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine use: a thematic analysis’, Journal of Scientific Exploration, 22(3), pp. 359–370. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis
Davis, E. (2019) High weirdness: drugs, esoterica, and visionary experience in the seventies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
DeKorne, J. (1994) Psychedelic shamanism: the cultivation, preparation, and shamanic use of psychotropic plants. Port Townsend, WA: Loompanics Unlimited. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
DeKorne, J. (ed.) (1996) Ayahuasca analogues and plant-based tryptamines: the best of The Entheogen Review 1992–1996. El Rito, NM: The Entheogen Review. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Dickinson, J.E. (2023) ‘Transpersonal intersubjectivity in ibogaine experiences: three cases’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 34(1), pp. 161–180. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anoc.12172. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Doan, U.V., Wu, M.-L., Phua, D.-H., Mendez Rojas, B. and Yang, C.-C. (2019) ‘Datura and Brugmansia plants related antimuscarinic toxicity: an analysis of poisoning cases reported to the Taiwan Poison Control Center’, Clinical Toxicology, 57(4), pp. 246–253. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2018.1513527. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
dos Santos, R.G. and Hallak, J.E.C. (2025) ‘Ayahuasca: pharmacology, safety, and therapeutic effects’, CNS Spectrums, 30(1), e2. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S109285292400213X. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
Eadie, M.J. (2003) ‘Convulsive ergotism: epidemics of the serotonin syndrome?’, The Lancet Neurology, 2(7), pp. 429–434. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(03)00439-3. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Favaron, P., Williams, K. and Bédard, A.-A. (2026) ‘Oni pae mera: Ayawaska among the Shipibo-Konibo and the crisis of western universalism’, Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 10(2), pp. 173–184. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2025.00497. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Frecska, E., Móré, C.E., Vargha, A. and Luna, L.E. (2012) ‘Enhancement of creative expression and entoptic phenomena as after-effects of repeated ayahuasca ceremonies’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 44(3), pp. 191–199. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Gabbai, Lisbonne and Pourquier (1951) ‘Ergot poisoning at Pont St. Esprit’, British Medical Journal, 2(4732), pp. 650–651. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.4732.650. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
González Espejito, F., Esteban Rodríguez, L., Pedrero Pérez, E.J. et al. (2025) ‘The Ibogaine Experience Scale (IES): development and psychometric properties of a multidimensional measure of ibogaine’s subjective effects’, PLOS ONE, 20(10), e0333296. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333296. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Gonzalez, D., Cantillo, J., Perez, I., Carvalho, M., Aronovich, A., Farre, M., Feilding, A., Obiols, J.E. and Bouso, J.C. (2021) ‘The Shipibo ceremonial use of ayahuasca to promote well-being: an observational study’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12, 623923. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.623923. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Goodwin, G.M. et al. (2025) ‘Results from a long-term observational follow-up study of a single dose of psilocybin for a treatment-resistant episode of major depressive disorder’, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 86(1), 24m15449. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.24m15449. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Grob, C.S. et al. (1996) ‘Human psychopharmacology of hoasca, a plant hallucinogen used in ritual context in Brazil’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184(2), pp. 86–94. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis
Hartwig, J., Kendrick, J., Ahmad, G. et al. (2025) ‘Exploring user experiences with Amanita muscaria: a thematic analysis of Reddit online forum discussions’, Substance Use & Misuse, 60(7), pp. 952–961. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2025.2476141. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Holze, F., Becker, A.M., Kolaczynska, K.E., Duthaler, U. and Liechti, M.E. (2023) ‘Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral psilocybin administration in healthy participants’, Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 113(4), pp. 822–831. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/cpt.2821. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Huestis, M.A., Brett, M.A., Bothmer, J. et al. (2024) ‘Human mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine pharmacokinetics after single and multiple daily doses of oral encapsulated dried kratom leaf powder’, Molecules, 29(5), 984. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29050984. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Huestis, M.A., Brett, M.A., Bothmer, J. et al. (2026) ‘Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine plasma pharmacokinetics in humans after single and 15 multiple oral kratom extract doses’, Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 50(6), bkag042. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkag042. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Isbister, G.K., Oakley, P., Dawson, A.H. and Whyte, I.M. (2003) ‘Presumed angel’s trumpet (Brugmansia) poisoning: clinical effects and epidemiology’, Emergency Medicine, 15(4), pp. 376–382. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-2026.2003.00477.x. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Jayawickreme, K.P., Janaka, K.W.A., Subasinghe, S., et al. (2019) ‘Unknowing ingestion of Brugmansia suaveolens leaves presenting with signs of anticholinergic toxicity: a case report’, Journal of Medical Case Reports, 13, 322. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13256-019-2250-1. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Johnson, M.W., MacLean, K.A., Reissig, C.J., Prisinzano, T.E. and Griffiths, R.R. (2011) ‘Human psychopharmacology and dose-effects of salvinorin A, a κ opioid agonist hallucinogen present in the plant Salvia divinorum’, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 115(1–2), pp. 150–155. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.005. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Kerchner, A. and Farkas, Á. (2020) ‘Worldwide poisoning potential of Brugmansia and Datura’, Forensic Toxicology, 38, pp. 30–41. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11419-019-00500-2. cited in
Brugmansia suaveolens
Klaiber, A., Humbert-Droz, M., Ley, L., Schmid, Y. and Liechti, M.E. (2024b) ‘Safety pharmacology of acute mescaline administration in healthy participants’, British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, pp. 1–12. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.16349. cited in
Wixárika Peyote–Pilgrimage–Nierika Complex
Klotz, J.L. (2015) ‘Activities and effects of ergot alkaloids on livestock physiology and production’, Toxins, 7(8), pp. 2801–2821. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins7082801. cited in
Claviceps purpurea
Kohek, M., Ohren, M., Hornby, P., Alcázar-Córcoles, M.Á. and Bouso, J.C. (2020) ‘The ibogaine experience: a qualitative study on the acute subjective effects of ibogaine’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 31(1), pp. 91–119. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anoc.12119. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Lee, M.R., Dukan, E. and Milne, I. (2018) ‘Amanita muscaria (fly agaric): from a shamanistic hallucinogen to the search for acetylcholine’, Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 48(1), pp. 85–91. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4997/JRCPE.2018.119. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Lema, V.S. (2024) ‘Contemporary uses of vilca’, Plants, 13(17), 2398. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13172398. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina
MacLean, K.A., Johnson, M.W., Reissig, C.J., Prisinzano, T.E. and Griffiths, R.R. (2013) ‘Dose-related effects of salvinorin A in humans: dissociative, hallucinogenic, and memory effects’, Psychopharmacology, 226, pp. 381–392. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-012-2912-9. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Martínez-Mota, L., Cruz-Tavera, A., Machorro-Rojas, N. et al. (2021) ‘Calea zacatechichi Schltdl. (Compositae) produces anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects, and increases the hippocampal activity during REM sleep in rodents’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 265, 113316. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113316. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Maung, A.C., Hennessey, M. and Kadiyala, R. (2023) ‘Accidental colourful mushroom poisoning—delirium, delusions and dreams’, Clinical Medicine, 23(4), pp. 417–419. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmed.2023-0103. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Mayagoitia, L., Díaz, J.L. and Contreras, C.M. (1986) ‘Psychopharmacologic analysis of an alleged oneirogenic plant: Calea zacatechichi’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 18(3), pp. 229–243. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(86)90002-4. cited in
Calea zacatechichi · Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
McKenna, T. (1991) The archaic revival. San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
McKenna, T. (1992) Food of the gods: the search for the original tree of knowledge. New York: Bantam. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
McKenna, T. and McKenna, D. (1993 [1975]) The invisible landscape: mind, hallucinogens, and the I Ching. New York: HarperCollins. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Meng, C. et al. (2025) ‘Structural basis for psilocybin biosynthesis’, Nature Communications, 16, 3141. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-58239-x. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Mueller, F. et al. (2025) ‘Pharmacokinetics, safety and subjective effects of intranasal DMT with buccal harmine’, International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 28(2), pyaf001. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyaf001. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Olash, C., Pahngur, M., Evans, L.K. et al. (2026) ‘Accelerated recovery using magnesium ibogaine: characterizing the subjective experience of its rapid healing from neuropsychiatric disorders’, npj Mental Health Research, 5, 8. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44184-026-00185-7. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga · Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Oldoni, A.A., Carvalho, L.S., Bittencourt, L. et al. (2024) ‘Neuropsychopharmacological induction of (lucid) dreams: a narrative review’, Brain Sciences, 14(5), 426. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050426. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Ott, J. (1994) Ayahuasca analogues: Pangaean entheogens. Kennewick, WA: Natural Products Co. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Ott, J. (1996) Pharmacotheon: entheogenic drugs, their plant sources and history. 2nd edn. Kennewick, WA: Natural Products Co. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Ott, J. (2001) ‘Pharmañopo—psychonautics: human intranasal, sublingual, intrarectal, pulmonary and oral pharmacology of bufotenine’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 33(3), pp. 273–281. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2001.10400574. cited in
Anadenanthera colubrina · Anadenanthera peregrina · Circum-Amazonian Snuff Complex
Ott, J. (2001) ‘Pharmañopo—psychonautics’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 33(3), pp. 273–281. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2001.10400574. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Pagni, B.A., Halman, A., Sarris, J., Chenhall, R., Bogenschutz, M.P. and Perkins, D. (2025) ‘Long-term mental health and wellbeing outcomes associated with naturalistic ayahuasca consumption’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. Advance online publication. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2025.2465800. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Perkins, D. et al. (2021) ‘Influence of context and setting on the mental health and wellbeing outcomes of ayahuasca drinkers’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12, 623979. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.623979. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Perkins, D., Opaleye, E.S., Simonova, H., Bouso, J.C., Tófoli, L.F., Galvão-Coelho, N.L., Sarris, J. and Liknaitzky, P. (2021) ‘Associations between ayahuasca consumption in naturalistic settings and current alcohol and drug use: results of a large international cross-sectional survey’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12, 623979. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.623979. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex
Preller, K.H., Burt, J.B., Ji, J.L. et al. (2018) ‘Changes in global and thalamic brain connectivity in LSD-induced altered states of consciousness are attributable to the 5-HT2A receptor’, eLife, 7, e35082. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.35082. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Reissig, C.J., Chen, L., Nallani, S.C. et al. (2026) ‘A pilot, dose-finding, pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic study of orally administered botanical kratom’, Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 46(4), pp. 386–398. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000002158. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Riba, J. et al. (2006) ‘Increased frontal and paralimbic activation following ayahuasca, the pan-Amazonian inebriant’, Psychopharmacology, 186, pp. 93–98. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi
Robison, R., Barrow, R., Conant, C. et al. (2025) ‘Single treatment with MM120 (lysergide) in generalized anxiety disorder: a randomized clinical trial’, JAMA, 334(15), pp. 1358–1372. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2025.13481. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Rodd, R. (2003) ‘Märipa: to know everything’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 14(2), pp. 60–88. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1525/ac.2003.14.2.60. cited in
Anadenanthera peregrina
Rodríguez-Cano, B.J. et al. (2023) ‘Underground ibogaine use for the treatment of substance use disorders: a qualitative analysis of subjective experiences’, Drug and Alcohol Review, 42(2), pp. 401–414. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.13587. cited in
Tabernanthe iboga
Rushkoff, D. (1994) Cyberia: life in the trenches of hyperspace. London: HarperCollins. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Sałaga, M., Fichna, J., Socała, K. et al. (2016) ‘Neuropharmacological characterization of the oneirogenic Mexican plant Calea zacatechichi aqueous extract in mice’, Metabolic Brain Disease, 31, pp. 631–641. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11011-016-9794-1. cited in
Calea zacatechichi
Sanz, C., Zamberlan, F., Erowid, E., Erowid, F. and Tagliazucchi, E. (2018) ‘The experience elicited by hallucinogens presents the highest similarity to dreaming within a large database of psychoactive substance reports’, Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, 7. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00007. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Savoldi, R., Roazzi, A. and Sales, R.C.O. (2023) 'Mystical and ego-dissolution experiences in ayahuasca and jurema holistic rituals: an exploratory study', The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 33(4), pp. 332–360. cited in
Mimosa tenuiflora
Schenberg, E.E., de Castro Comis, M.A., Chaves, B.R. and da Silveira, D.X. (2017) ‘A phenomenological analysis of the subjective experience elicited by ibogaine in the context of a drug dependence treatment’, Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 1(2), pp. 74–83. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.01.2017.007. cited in
Bwiti–Iboga Complex
Shanon, B. (2002) The Antipodes of the Mind: Charting the Phenomenology of the Ayahuasca Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press. cited in
Banisteriopsis caapi · Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Complex
Siegel, J.S. et al. (2024) ‘Psilocybin desynchronizes the human brain’, Nature, 632, pp. 131–138. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07624-5. cited in
Mazatec Divinatory Medicine Complex
Singh, D., Müller, C.P. and Vicknasingam, B.K. (2014) ‘Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence, withdrawal symptoms and craving in regular users’, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 139, pp. 132–137. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.03.017. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Soares, C., Lima, G., Teixeira, M., André, R., Rijo, P., Cabral, C. and Castelo-Branco, M. (2026) ‘Ayahuasca enhances functional connectivity in the third visual pathway and mirror neuron networks: a crossover, multiple-dose functional MRI study’, Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 21(1), nsag004. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsag004. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex · Brazilian Ayahuasca–Jurema Syncretic Religions Complex
St John, G. (2018a) ‘The breakthrough experience: DMT hyperspace and its liminal aesthetics’, Anthropology of Consciousness, 29(1), pp. 57–76. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/anoc.12089. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
St John, G. (2018b) ‘Gnosis potency: DMT breakthroughs and paragnosis’, in Cusack, C.M. and Kosnáč, P. (eds.) Fiction, invention and hyper-reality. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 275–306. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76720-8_12. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Stojanović, T., Nilsson, K.W., Fredriksson, R., Schiöth, H.B. and Moulin, T.C. (2026) ‘Registered clinical trials of ayahuasca and DMT: a scoping review’, Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 120(1), pp. 94–108. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/cpt.70311. cited in
Ayahuasca Complex · Ayahuasca Analogues
Strassman, R.J. (2001) DMT: The Spirit Molecule. Rochester, VT: Park Street Press. cited in
Psychotria viridis
Strassman, R.J., Qualls, C.R., Uhlenhuth, E.H. and Kellner, R. (1994) ‘Dose-response study of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 51(2), pp. 98–108. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950020022002. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Suay, D. et al. (2025) ‘Effects of DMT and harmine on creative dynamics’, Journal of Psychopharmacology. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811251353256. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Sumnall, H.R., Measham, F., Brandt, S.D. and Cole, J.C. (2011) ‘Salvia divinorum use and phenomenology: results from an online survey’, Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(11), pp. 1496–1507. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881110385596. cited in
Salvia divinorum
Timmermann, C. et al. (2019) ‘Neural correlates of the DMT experience assessed with multivariate EEG’, Scientific Reports, 9, 16324. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-51974-4. cited in
Diplopterys cabrerana · Psychotria viridis · Ayahuasca Analogues
Trakulsrichai, S., Sathirakul, K., Auparakkitanon, S. et al. (2015) ‘Pharmacokinetics of mitragynine in man’, Drug Design, Development and Therapy, 9, pp. 2421–2429. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S79658. cited in
Mitragyna speciosa
Turner, F. (2006) From counterculture to cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the rise of digital utopianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. cited in
Ayahuasca Analogues
Ustinova, Y. (2013) ‘To live in joy and die with hope: experiential aspects of ancient Greek mystery rites’, Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, 56(2), pp. 105–123. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-5370.2013.00061.x. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex
Uthaug, M.V. et al. (2022) ‘The epidemiology of mescaline use: pattern of use, motivations for consumption, and perceived consequences, benefits, and acute and enduring subjective effects’, Journal of Psychopharmacology, 36(3), pp. 309–320. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811211013583. cited in
Echinopsis pachanoi
Valle-Kendall, R.B. and Piñones-Rivera, C. (2025) ‘Subjective configurations in cacao ceremonies: a theoretical analysis from a Latin American cultural–historical psychology perspective’, Religions, 16(10), 1322. cited in
Theobroma cacao
Vendramin, A. and Brvar, M. (2014) ‘Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina poisoning: two syndromes’, Toxicon, 90, pp. 269–272. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.08.067. cited in
Fly Agaric–Circumboreal Complex
Widzisz, M. (2010) ‘The duration of darkness and the light of Eleusis in the prologue of Agamemnon’, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 50, pp. 461–489. Available at: grbs.library.duke.edu. cited in
Eleusinian Kykeon–Mystery Complex